RAG_W_ColBert.ipynb

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  "cells": [
    {
      "cell_type": "markdown",
      "source": [
        "## **This repo introduces RAG with ColBert (RAGaTouille)**\n",
        "\n",
        "> Implementation with both LangChain and Llama-index\n",
        "\n"
      ],
      "metadata": {
        "id": "z6dh6jH3RYXH"
      }
    },
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      "cell_type": "markdown",
      "source": [
        "## 1- Langchain"
      ],
      "metadata": {
        "id": "8QeFCR7DSHmQ"
      }
    },
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      "cell_type": "markdown",
      "source": [
        "### Install dependencies"
      ],
      "metadata": {
        "id": "-aFspL2gRPNN"
      }
    },
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      "source": [
        "!pip install -q -U ragatouille\n",
        "!pip install -q langchain\n",
        "!pip install -q langchain-openai\n",
        "!pip install -q langchain-core\n",
        "!pip install -q langchain-community\n",
        "!pip install -q pypdf"
      ],
      "metadata": {
        "colab": {
          "base_uri": "https://localhost:8080/"
        },
        "id": "JhespGIARUPD",
        "outputId": "f71dc369-726a-4bbd-f1de-19eee199e71c"
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            "\u001b[2K     \u001b[90m━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━\u001b[0m \u001b[32m75.6/75.6 kB\u001b[0m \u001b[31m11.4 MB/s\u001b[0m eta \u001b[36m0:00:00\u001b[0m\n",
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            "\u001b[2K     \u001b[90m━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━\u001b[0m \u001b[32m134.8/134.8 kB\u001b[0m \u001b[31m18.7 MB/s\u001b[0m eta \u001b[36m0:00:00\u001b[0m\n",
            "\u001b[2K     \u001b[90m━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━\u001b[0m \u001b[32m207.3/207.3 kB\u001b[0m \u001b[31m29.4 MB/s\u001b[0m eta \u001b[36m0:00:00\u001b[0m\n",
            "\u001b[2K     \u001b[90m━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━\u001b[0m \u001b[32m77.9/77.9 kB\u001b[0m \u001b[31m12.1 MB/s\u001b[0m eta \u001b[36m0:00:00\u001b[0m\n",
            "\u001b[2K     \u001b[90m━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━\u001b[0m \u001b[32m58.3/58.3 kB\u001b[0m \u001b[31m8.7 MB/s\u001b[0m eta \u001b[36m0:00:00\u001b[0m\n",
            "\u001b[2K     \u001b[90m━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━\u001b[0m \u001b[32m62.7/62.7 kB\u001b[0m \u001b[31m8.3 MB/s\u001b[0m eta \u001b[36m0:00:00\u001b[0m\n",
            "\u001b[?25h  Building wheel for colbert-ai (setup.py) ... \u001b[?25l\u001b[?25hdone\n"
          ]
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "cell_type": "markdown",
      "source": [
        "### Load the model"
      ],
      "metadata": {
        "id": "yZZBJzTdSmr9"
      }
    },
    {
      "cell_type": "code",
      "source": [
        "from ragatouille import RAGPretrainedModel\n",
        "\n",
        "model_name = \"colbert-ir/colbertv2.0\"\n",
        "model = RAGPretrainedModel.from_pretrained(model_name)"
      ],
      "metadata": {
        "colab": {
          "base_uri": "https://localhost:8080/",
          "height": 370,
          "referenced_widgets": [
            "e2aad66a3b5940a1b90d42c02f3e8e3c",
            "6afd1941af734f7e8dfcca864162032a",
            "c712ed810e164683a2e72b18bfe76bf0",
            "57ae72d764834f3484b9a37521ba27d2",
            "9e9ec46235c04bd48249a1a7bdb15b9f",
            "fc96954e4ef8424cbe86ed48549f13a3",
            "d9b9c7477ee540538fa5daf250de5be2",
            "ef129c4c90094d63bab7a55db98b2d82",
            "11b226b4f4eb4ffb9f2dc2f67390ca04",
            "2182eb54c88440aba7954c99823ef1cf",
            "b07bfe1795874971bd0d9de41a384365",
            "e2c8f12396104ebfa5868ff8fc35d176",
            "e8d98c6bba174df6890876964cb37791",
            "8845e7ebf5114c5fb6041a47a657721c",
            "228c73bb7de7450fac785db155697ac1",
            "6ef224db132943c9a4190150f76bf5ff",
            "ec526aeb7c184ac7b0199157fc8f39a8",
            "0344acf2a4144adf922e612cb0ef4178",
            "ec60321dcd3d455ea7be2e85b0aba9c7",
            "06c03d5fa14e44389d6723b50ecef3cb",
            "f4441092843a41b6b8e97355ac553873",
            "897c8f544c334d10bc33f29cae005f2f",
            "79e588d9f50747f7bb185620802dcf27",
            "4e87c73f936442e5b2681771c67ed655",
            "d1a8f0282e81423d8ef3526d835b4c76",
            "c04d04da2d09474f84267a594970ea31",
            "1b5f1f0733404e66a6c67fe634fb4875",
            "2f65293a56e447049771bb5ec9f54f0f",
            "b1090d6db1b6486baf11023f84e29d98",
            "014517a7ca6c4f75938d34c98a4c3f4d",
            "6951856c478b46e68531a35d02a4616f",
            "6bebc28c03b240ef910058928e1380c2",
            "dce7255ffc83453cab8864673fbccb6f",
            "774dfb1413554e96adf7ae1182c38fd8",
            "f68d9489856a4ebca4a19ff692ee18e6",
            "c04ed86a44f04725af3d88e479a9f16d",
            "fac68429fd0d47a9a921e0d78f1e07b2",
            "4046d2fc358b45c98511dbe23bd83b59",
            "63b7fabf9219471ca402bb9362306530",
            "08254abe5f5742ca81dd725bf433a9cb",
            "136e99f171ee45a9a2adad1f092af548",
            "584ef024c4374184957640ecd470d068",
            "24e3426444b2429eb5940f47af260687",
            "29670d06cd8b45a8a0652ba534d31e27",
            "0606a8bcd880490aa426bdbe0a559819",
            "c13a0280d5054216b6a4acee6f3e0d84",
            "7842da5aea3e4d958a1b5717a12771d3",
            "5d26cba317724f7b8fa5d8e5853901e0",
            "e1d6926e53c640c78c1a0013ae67057e",
            "8ec59991dca54b31bebc292c3ecf35b2",
            "0f9d87471db24a188537ce2c2111a0b4",
            "7179743ad8dd41f9af681cc60483b7aa",
            "28520a407e82498f80bc8bd631eeb519",
            "e359e2e03d8c48a4b069da9a5030b258",
            "4f411999ee2741208c17df149991c854",
            "f57fa2d34ddf46388cb04a4ce3b14574",
            "aee6117be4554d9aad952bebc1ac77d3",
            "5737e1c2ab8348e4a262f60059f63bb1",
            "3fcb0767313740198c1906460cce33d0",
            "470d236eeb47442ead90bd5da9dd26ae",
            "aaba393e150440958ea12af50622fb3c",
            "287565bffc794848baa732c5d81b8e51",
            "908dd7364e3b41ac951308ba3c8e5179",
            "943016bf3bd4442d9ae14a8298a568fb",
            "ebf234ec84c34bb3915a18f71b3936d4",
            "c13fcfefdc604622988141f1078b268d",
            "6ad5329995b2454c9bbf1a4c618058eb",
            "875f5b7278f74ecba6b0e65a59a4b8b4",
            "b5cefc7a0ed6431ea541daa36fa7c273",
            "16539f349eb44822b89c7d6a11e76644",
            "fbaeb8729cb34c7fbc53a9bd49553a8d",
            "f02332367da844679b04d6744a6ed012",
            "9eafc25339f943b991d444b705a94494",
            "51cb4ffeccf34df99cee216dca7fa92a",
            "0873955845744843820afd96f0854c65",
            "d07b7832d0cf488a9add5d1f43c29af8",
            "f3274d58d55a4ec4ad25a330c7c1a493"
          ]
        },
        "id": "w28az51WSGcL",
        "outputId": "88c3d6bc-00ae-417f-ee22-8359fe13a530"
      },
      "execution_count": 2,
      "outputs": [
        {
          "output_type": "stream",
          "name": "stderr",
          "text": [
            "/usr/local/lib/python3.10/dist-packages/huggingface_hub/utils/_token.py:88: UserWarning: \n",
            "The secret `HF_TOKEN` does not exist in your Colab secrets.\n",
            "To authenticate with the Hugging Face Hub, create a token in your settings tab (https://huggingface.co/settings/tokens), set it as secret in your Google Colab and restart your session.\n",
            "You will be able to reuse this secret in all of your notebooks.\n",
            "Please note that authentication is recommended but still optional to access public models or datasets.\n",
            "  warnings.warn(\n"
          ]
        },
        {
          "output_type": "display_data",
          "data": {
            "text/plain": [
              "artifact.metadata:   0%|          | 0.00/1.63k [00:00<?, ?B/s]"
            ],
            "application/vnd.jupyter.widget-view+json": {
              "version_major": 2,
              "version_minor": 0,
              "model_id": "e2aad66a3b5940a1b90d42c02f3e8e3c"
            }
          },
          "metadata": {}
        },
        {
          "output_type": "display_data",
          "data": {
            "text/plain": [
              "config.json:   0%|          | 0.00/743 [00:00<?, ?B/s]"
            ],
            "application/vnd.jupyter.widget-view+json": {
              "version_major": 2,
              "version_minor": 0,
              "model_id": "e2c8f12396104ebfa5868ff8fc35d176"
            }
          },
          "metadata": {}
        },
        {
          "output_type": "display_data",
          "data": {
            "text/plain": [
              "model.safetensors:   0%|          | 0.00/438M [00:00<?, ?B/s]"
            ],
            "application/vnd.jupyter.widget-view+json": {
              "version_major": 2,
              "version_minor": 0,
              "model_id": "79e588d9f50747f7bb185620802dcf27"
            }
          },
          "metadata": {}
        },
        {
          "output_type": "display_data",
          "data": {
            "text/plain": [
              "tokenizer_config.json:   0%|          | 0.00/405 [00:00<?, ?B/s]"
            ],
            "application/vnd.jupyter.widget-view+json": {
              "version_major": 2,
              "version_minor": 0,
              "model_id": "774dfb1413554e96adf7ae1182c38fd8"
            }
          },
          "metadata": {}
        },
        {
          "output_type": "display_data",
          "data": {
            "text/plain": [
              "vocab.txt:   0%|          | 0.00/232k [00:00<?, ?B/s]"
            ],
            "application/vnd.jupyter.widget-view+json": {
              "version_major": 2,
              "version_minor": 0,
              "model_id": "0606a8bcd880490aa426bdbe0a559819"
            }
          },
          "metadata": {}
        },
        {
          "output_type": "display_data",
          "data": {
            "text/plain": [
              "tokenizer.json:   0%|          | 0.00/466k [00:00<?, ?B/s]"
            ],
            "application/vnd.jupyter.widget-view+json": {
              "version_major": 2,
              "version_minor": 0,
              "model_id": "f57fa2d34ddf46388cb04a4ce3b14574"
            }
          },
          "metadata": {}
        },
        {
          "output_type": "display_data",
          "data": {
            "text/plain": [
              "special_tokens_map.json:   0%|          | 0.00/112 [00:00<?, ?B/s]"
            ],
            "application/vnd.jupyter.widget-view+json": {
              "version_major": 2,
              "version_minor": 0,
              "model_id": "6ad5329995b2454c9bbf1a4c618058eb"
            }
          },
          "metadata": {}
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "cell_type": "markdown",
      "source": [
        "### Document Loading"
      ],
      "metadata": {
        "id": "KEgaqqEcSssJ"
      }
    },
    {
      "cell_type": "code",
      "source": [
        "from langchain_community.document_loaders import PyPDFLoader\n",
        "\n",
        "loader = PyPDFLoader(\"ORCA.pdf\")\n",
        "pages = loader.load_and_split()\n",
        "\n",
        "len(pages)"
      ],
      "metadata": {
        "colab": {
          "base_uri": "https://localhost:8080/"
        },
        "id": "n3rKw50XSvzu",
        "outputId": "2efcd186-31cb-434f-dd30-35550e9fa44d"
      },
      "execution_count": 4,
      "outputs": [
        {
          "output_type": "execute_result",
          "data": {
            "text/plain": [
              "55"
            ]
          },
          "metadata": {},
          "execution_count": 4
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "cell_type": "code",
      "source": [
        "# Graping all pages in one document\n",
        "\n",
        "full_document = \"\"\n",
        "for page in pages:\n",
        "  full_document += page.page_content\n",
        "\n",
        "print(full_document)"
      ],
      "metadata": {
        "colab": {
          "base_uri": "https://localhost:8080/"
        },
        "id": "yIO3yXHaT380",
        "outputId": "c996e18b-7024-48d7-edcd-a6e2878de0f2"
      },
      "execution_count": 5,
      "outputs": [
        {
          "output_type": "stream",
          "name": "stdout",
          "text": [
            "Orca: Progressive Learning from Complex\n",
            "Explanation Traces of GPT-4\n",
            "Subhabrata Mukherjee∗†, Arindam Mitra∗\n",
            "Ganesh Jawahar, Sahaj Agarwal, Hamid Palangi, Ahmed Awadallah\n",
            "Microsoft Research\n",
            "Abstract\n",
            "Recent research has focused on enhancing the capability of smaller models\n",
            "through imitation learning, drawing on the outputs generated by large\n",
            "foundation models (LFMs). A number of issues impact the quality of these\n",
            "models, ranging from limited imitation signals from shallow LFM outputs;\n",
            "small scale homogeneous training data; and most notably a lack of rigorous\n",
            "evaluation resulting in overestimating the small model’s capability as they\n",
            "tend to learn to imitate the style, but not the reasoning process of LFMs . To\n",
            "address these challenges, we develop Orca, a 13-billion parameter model\n",
            "that learns to imitate the reasoning process of LFMs. Orca learns from\n",
            "rich signals from GPT-4 including explanation traces; step-by-step thought\n",
            "processes; and other complex instructions, guided by teacher assistance from\n",
            "ChatGPT. To promote this progressive learning, we tap into large-scale and\n",
            "diverse imitation data with judicious sampling and selection. Orca surpasses\n",
            "conventional state-of-the-art instruction-tuned models such as Vicuna-13B\n",
            "by more than 100% in complex zero-shot reasoning benchmarks like Big-\n",
            "Bench Hard (BBH) and 42%on AGIEval. Moreover, Orca reaches parity\n",
            "with ChatGPT on the BBH benchmark and shows competitive performance\n",
            "(4pts gap with optimized system message) in professional and academic\n",
            "examinations like the SAT, LSAT, GRE, and GMAT, both in zero-shot\n",
            "settings without CoT; while trailing behind GPT-4. Our research indicates\n",
            "that learning from step-by-step explanations, whether these are generated\n",
            "by humans or more advanced AI models, is a promising direction to improve\n",
            "model capabilities and skills.\n",
            "∗Co-primary authors. Author contributions listed at the end of the paper.\n",
            "†Correspondence to subhabrata.mukherjee@microsoft.com\n",
            "We are working with our legal team to publicly release a diff of the model weights in accordance\n",
            "with LLaMA’s release policy to be published at https://aka.ms/orca-lm .\n",
            "Work in progress.arXiv:2306.02707v1  [cs.CL]  5 Jun 2023Contents\n",
            "1 Introduction 4\n",
            "1.1 Challenges with Existing Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5\n",
            "1.2 Key Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6\n",
            "2 Preliminaries 7\n",
            "2.1 Instruction Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7\n",
            "2.2 Role of System Instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7\n",
            "3 Explanation Tuning 8\n",
            "3.1 Dataset Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8\n",
            "3.1.1 System Messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9\n",
            "3.1.2 Dataset Description and Sampling from the FLAN-v2 Collection . . . 9\n",
            "3.1.3 ChatGPT as Teaching Assistant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12\n",
            "3.2 Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13\n",
            "4 Experiment Setup 14\n",
            "4.1 Baselines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14\n",
            "4.2 Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15\n",
            "4.2.1 Open-ended Generation Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15\n",
            "4.2.2 Reasoning Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16\n",
            "5 Evaluation for Open-ended Generation 17\n",
            "6 Evaluation for Reasoning 17\n",
            "6.1 AGIEval Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17\n",
            "6.2 Big-Bench Hard Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20\n",
            "7 Evaluation for Safety 23\n",
            "7.1 Truthful Question Answering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23\n",
            "7.2 Toxic Content Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26\n",
            "7.3 Note on Hallucination and Tool Augmented LFMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27\n",
            "8 Limitations 28\n",
            "9 Conclusions 29\n",
            "10 Author Contributions 29\n",
            "11 Case Studies 30\n",
            "11.1 Trigonometric Problem Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30\n",
            "11.2 Temporal Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32\n",
            "11.3 Multiple-choice Question-Answering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33\n",
            "211.4 Bio Olympiad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34\n",
            "11.5 Forming Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35\n",
            "11.6 Counterfactual Question Answering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38\n",
            "11.7 Compound Interest Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38\n",
            "11.8 Question from Vicuna-Eval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39\n",
            "11.9 Spatial Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41\n",
            "11.10Commonsense Question Answering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42\n",
            "11.11Hallucination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44\n",
            "11.12Quadratic Equation Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45\n",
            "11.13Meeting Transcript Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46\n",
            "31 Introduction\n",
            "687692 93100103\n",
            "20406080100120\n",
            "LLaMA-13B Alpaca-13B Vicuna-13B Bard ChatGPT Orca-13BPerformance (%) relative to \n",
            "ChatGPTEvaluation with GPT -4 \n",
            "Figure 1: Orca (13B params) outperforms a wide range of foundation models including Ope-\n",
            "nAI ChatGPT as evaluated by GPT-4 in the Vicuna evaluation set. We further demonstrate\n",
            "similar results against a wide range of evaluation sets from other works in experiments.\n",
            "3042 4247\n",
            "20253035404550\n",
            "Vicuna-13B Text-da-Vinci-003 Orca-13B ChatGPTAggregate  Accuracy  (%)Professional and Academic Exams (SAT, LSAT, GRE, GMAT)  (Zero -shot, MCQ)\n",
            "Figure 2: Explanation tuning with Orca (13B params) bridges gap with OpenAI foundation\n",
            "models like Text-da-Vinci-003 with 5 pts gap (the gap further reduces with optimized system\n",
            "messages) against ChatGPT across a wide range of professional and academic exams including\n",
            "GRE, GMAT, LSAT, SAT from the AGIEval benchmark [ 1] in zero-shot settings (without\n",
            "any exemplar or CoT). Topical performances shown in Figure 11.\n",
            "Large Foundation Models (LFMs) such as ChatGPT and GPT-4 [ 2] exhibit remarkable zero-\n",
            "shot performances across a broad spectrum of tasks. Alongside academic benchmarks like\n",
            "Human Eval [ 3] and Big Bench [ 4], GPT-4 has also demonstrated human-level performance\n",
            "on various professional exams, including the bar exam, SAT, GRE, and USMLE. These\n",
            "advancements can be credited to the scaling of both model and dataset sizes, as well\n",
            "as the incorporation of a second layer of training to better align the models with user\n",
            "intent. This alignment is accomplished by fine-tuning the models via supervised learning on\n",
            "demonstrations of prompts and desired model behavior, and through reinforcement learning\n",
            "from human preferences [5].\n",
            "As these models continue to evolve and become more powerful, an intriguing question arises:\n",
            "Can we use the model itself to supervise its own behavior or that of other AI models? Bai\n",
            "et al.[6]have shown that by sampling output from an initial model, generating revisions,\n",
            "and then fine-tuning the original model based on these revised responses, model behavior\n",
            "can be controlled more effectively and can be made more harmless, with significantly fewer\n",
            "human labels.\n",
            "Recently, there has been an influx of studies using LFMs like ChatGPT and GPT-4 as\n",
            "teachers to generate large datasets, for instruction tuning , and to train smaller models,\n",
            "such as Alpaca [ 7], WizardLM [ 8] and Vicuna [ 9]. While these models can produce content\n",
            "that matches the style of their teachers, they often fall short in terms of the reasoning and\n",
            "comprehension skills displayed by the larger foundation models.\n",
            "423.348.9 49.7\n",
            "0102030405060\n",
            "Vicuna-13B ChatGPT Orca-13BAggregate Accuracy (%)BigBench -Hard (Zero -shot, MCQ)Figure 3: For complex zero-shot reasoning tasks in BigBench-Hard, Orca achieves parity\n",
            "with ChatGPT (without any exemplar or CoT) with task performances shown in Figure 12.\n",
            "Take, for example, the 13-billion parameter instruction-tuned model, Vicuna [ 9] (with\n",
            "LLAMA-13B [ 10] as the base), which is widely regarded as one of the best models in its\n",
            "family, as evidenced by its performance on leaderboards like OpenLLM3and ChatArena4.\n",
            "As illustrated in Figure 1, the widely-used evaluation method of using GPT-4 as the judge\n",
            "suggests that Vicuna retains 92%of ChatGPT’s quality. However, a more meticulous\n",
            "evaluation on reasoning benchmarks against human labels finds Vicuna to retain only 64%\n",
            "of ChatGPT’s quality on professional and academic exams (see Figure 2), and only 48%of\n",
            "ChatGPT’s quality on complex benchmarks like BigBench-hard [ 11] (see Figure 3)5. This\n",
            "discrepancy not only underscores the limitations of existing evaluation protocols with smaller\n",
            "LLMs, but it also reveals their significant lag in reasoning and comprehension capabilities.\n",
            "In essence, these models may be articulate, but they may not necessarily possess robust\n",
            "reasoning skills. In this study, we discuss some of the reasons behind these gaps and propose\n",
            "strategies for addressing them.\n",
            "1.1 Challenges with Existing Methods\n",
            "Current research on instruction-tuning to mimic the output of LFM’s like ChatGPT exhibits\n",
            "notable limitation in task diversity, query complexity, and data scaling. These observations\n",
            "are corroborated in a recent study by Gudibande et al. [12], where the authors assert that\n",
            "“model imitation is a false promise” since “broadly matching ChatGPT using purely imitation\n",
            "would require (1) a concerted effort to collect enormous imitation datasets and (2) far more\n",
            "diverse and higher quality imitation data than is currently available.”. Contrary to this\n",
            "assertion, we demonstrate that both conditions (1) and (2) are attainable and that it is\n",
            "possible to reduce the gap with proprietary LLM’s on multiple zero-shot benchmarks that\n",
            "require sophisticated reasoning. We elaborate on these challenges below:\n",
            "Simple instructions with limited diversity. The Self-Instruct [ 13] process involves using\n",
            "an initial set of prompts to incite the LFM to produce new instructions. Any low-quality or\n",
            "overly similar responses are then removed, and the remaining instructions are reintegrated\n",
            "into the task pool for further iterations. Nonetheless, the resulting queries generated through\n",
            "Self-Instruct, such as “what are the three primary colors?\", “what is the capital of France?\", etc. ,\n",
            "can exhibit limitations in diversity and complexity. Both Alpaca [ 7] and WizardLM [ 8]\n",
            "employ a variant of self-instruct. WizardLM introduces the concept of Evol-Instruct, which\n",
            "gradually rewrites the initial set of instructions into more complex versions, attempting to\n",
            "overcome some of the method’s inherent shortcomings. On the other hand, recent works\n",
            "like Vicuna [ 9] and Koala [ 14] demonstrate remarkable performance due to more human-like\n",
            "conversations and natural instructions in community-contributed conversations like those in\n",
            "ShareGPT6that provided a forum for users to share their conversations with ChatGPT.\n",
            "Task diversity and data scaling. Human-contributed conversations in ShareGPT are a\n",
            "valuable source of data, but they also have some limitations. They tend to favor creative\n",
            "3https://huggingface.co/spaces/HuggingFaceH4/open_llm_leaderboard\n",
            "4https://chat.lmsys.org/?arena\n",
            "5ChatGPT may have data contamination issues with respect to BigBench\n",
            "6https://sharegpt.com/\n",
            "5content generation and information-seeking queries over other types of tasks. Therefore,\n",
            "models trained on such natural conversations may capture the style but not the reasoning\n",
            "process of the LFMs – demonstrated in the performance of Vicuna in Figures 2 and 3.\n",
            "Additionally, such mode of data collection is also limited in scale. Table 1 shows an overview\n",
            "of the size of data and tuning methods employed in recent popular instruction tuning works.\n",
            "Limited imitation signals. Existing methods rely on immitation learning from\n",
            "⟨query, response⟩pairs generated by the teacher model. However, this provides limited\n",
            "signals to trace the reasoning process of the teacher. Prior works [ 15,16] on open-box model\n",
            "show that richer signals such as logits, intermediate representations and attention states can\n",
            "significantly improve distillation performance. While they are not accessible for closed-box\n",
            "LFM’s7, recent work [ 17] demonstrates that richer signals like LFM rationales can help close\n",
            "the gap for task-specific distillation.\n",
            "Evaluation: Previous studies on instruction tuning of small models with LFMs are severely\n",
            "limited in their evaluation protocol. They often rely on GPT-4 for auto-evaluation by asking\n",
            "it to compare the outputs of two systems with a prompt like “given responses from system\n",
            "1 (reference) and system 2 (target), which one is better?”. However, this approach has\n",
            "several drawbacks, such as the small size of test sets (e.g., 80instructions in Vicuna and 218\n",
            "instructions in WizardLM) and the biases of GPT-4 as the judge [ 18]. For example, we notice\n",
            "that models that are instruction-tuned with GPT-4 responses tend to generate longer texts\n",
            "that GPT-4 prefers over shorter ones; as well as GPT-4 has a bias in the order of the candidate\n",
            "responses. We will show that such auto-evaluation measures overestimate the abilities of\n",
            "smaller models compared to LFMs, as the former are much weaker in comprehension and\n",
            "reasoning skills.\n",
            "1.2 Key Contributions\n",
            "In this research, our focus is on addressing the challenges mentioned above, specifically with:\n",
            "Explanation tuning: We augment⟨query, response⟩pairs with detailed responses from\n",
            "GPT-4 that explain the reasoning process of the teacher as it generates the response. These\n",
            "provide the student with additional signals for learning. We leverage system instructions (e.g..,\n",
            "explain like I’m five, think step-by-step and justify your response , etc.) to\n",
            "elicit such explanations. This is in contrast to vanilla instruction tuning, which only uses the\n",
            "prompt and the LFM response for learning, providing little opportunity for mimicking the\n",
            "LFM’s “thought” process.\n",
            "Scaling tasks and instructions: We utilize the Flan 2022 Collection [ 19] as it provides\n",
            "an extensive public assortment of tasks and instructions. Particularly, we use FLAN-\n",
            "v2, supplemented with high-quality templates, advanced formatting patterns, and data\n",
            "augmentations. Even though FLAN holds tens of millions of instructions, we selectively\n",
            "sample from the task collection to form a diverse mixture of tasks, which we then further\n",
            "sub-sample to generate complex prompts. These prompts are used to query LFMs like\n",
            "ChatGPT and GPT-4, thus creating a rich and diverse training set. We collect 5million\n",
            "ChatGPT responses, from which 1million is further sampled to acquire GPT-4 responses.\n",
            "We demonstrate how ChatGPT as a teacher assistant helps in progressive learning.\n",
            "Evaluation: We assess the generative, reasoning, and comprehension abilities of Orca, under\n",
            "a range of settings: (i) AutoEvaluation with GPT-4 on existing evaluation sets from Vicuna,\n",
            "WizardLM and the awesome prompts collection8; (ii) Academic benchmarks like Big-Bench\n",
            "Hard [4] and TruthfulQA [ 20]; (iii) Professional and Academic exams like SAT, LSAT, GRE,\n",
            "GMAT from AGIEval [ 1]; (iv) Safety evaluation with ToxiGen [ 21] to test toxic language\n",
            "generation and hate speech detection across different minority groups. Finally, we provideGMAT from AGIEval [ 1]; (iv) Safety evaluation with ToxiGen [ 21] to test toxic language\n",
            "generation and hate speech detection across different minority groups. Finally, we provide\n",
            "case-studies to compare the generation and reasoning abilities of Orca against OpenAI LFMs\n",
            "like ChatGPT and GPT-4, and instruction-tuned smaller model like Vicuna.\n",
            "7Note that OpenAI API’s do give access to the top-5logits for each token.\n",
            "8https://prompts.chat/\n",
            "6Model Tuning Method Data Size Teacher\n",
            "Alpaca Simple Instructions / Self-instruct 52K text-da-vinci-003\n",
            "Vicuna User Instructions / Natural 70K ChatGPT\n",
            "Dolly User Instructions / Natural 15K Human\n",
            "WizardLM Complex Instructions / Evol-instruct 250K ChatGPT\n",
            "Orca Complex Instructions / Explanations 5M ChatGPT (5M)\n",
            "∩GPT-4 (1M)\n",
            "Table 1: Overview of popular models instruction tuned with OpenAI large foundation models\n",
            "(LFMs). Orca leverages complex instructions and explanations for progressive learning.\n",
            "User Instruction: Use the given data to calculate the median. \n",
            "Input:[7, 3, 8, 2, 10]\n",
            "User Instruction: Answer this question.\n",
            "Input:Which small lake lies between Windermere and Grasmere?User Instruction: In this task, you will be presented with a question having \n",
            "multiple possible answers in Italian language. And you should choose a most \n",
            "suitable option out of \"A\", \"B\", \"C\", \"D\", and \"E\" based on your commonsense \n",
            "knowledge. \n",
            "Input:Solve this question: Dove non riusciresti a vedere la luce? \n",
            "Options: A scrivaniaB frigoriferoC sole D universoE atticoOutput: First, we need to arrange the data in ascending order: [2, 3, 7, 8, 10]. \n",
            "Since there are 5 numbers, the median is the middle number, which is 7.\n",
            "Output: B frigorifero\n",
            "Output: Rydal Water lies between Windermere and Grasmere.\n",
            "Figure 4: Instruction-tuning with GPT-49. Given user instructions for a task and an input,\n",
            "the system generates a response. Existing works like Alpaca [ 7], Vicuna [ 9] and variants\n",
            "follow a similar template to train small models with ⟨{user instruction, input}, output ⟩.\n",
            "2 Preliminaries\n",
            "2.1 Instruction Tuning\n",
            "Instruction tuning [ 22] is a technique that allows pre-trained language models to learn\n",
            "from input (natural language descriptions of the task) and response pairs, for example,\n",
            "{\"instruction\": \"Arrange the words in the given sentence to form a grammatically\n",
            "correct sentence.\", \"input\": \"the quickly brown fox jumped\", \"output\": \"the brown\n",
            "fox jumped quickly\"} . Instruction tuning has been applied to both language-only and\n",
            "multimodal tasks. For language-only tasks, instruction tuning has been shown to improve\n",
            "the zero-shot and few-shot performance of models such as FLAN [ 22] and InstructGPT [ 5]\n",
            "on various benchmarks. For multimodal tasks, instruction tuning has been used to generate\n",
            "synthetic instruction-following data for language-image tasks, such as image captioning [ 23]\n",
            "and visual question answering [24].\n",
            "A wide range of works in recent times, including Alpaca [ 7], Vicuna [ 9], WizardLM [ 8] and\n",
            "Koala [14], have adopted instruction-tuning to train smaller language models with outputs\n",
            "generated from large foundation models from the GPT family. As outlined in Section 1.1,\n",
            "a significant drawback with all these works has been both limited task diversity, query\n",
            "complexity and small-scale training data in addition to limited evaluation overstating the\n",
            "benefits of such approach.\n",
            "2.2 Role of System Instructions\n",
            "Vanilla instruction-tuning (refer to Figure 4 for examples) often uses input, response pairs\n",
            "with short and terse responses. Such responses when used to train smaller models, as in\n",
            "existing works, give them limited ability to trace the reasoning process of the LFM. In\n",
            "constrast, system instructions10in recent LFMs like GPT-4 can be used to provide guidance\n",
            "9GPT-4 inference hyper-parameters in Azure OpenAI interface set as: temperature=0.7,\n",
            "top_p=0.95, frequency_penalty=0, presence_penalty=0, stop=None.\n",
            "10System instructions are part of the Chat Completion API, which is a new dedicated API for\n",
            "interacting with the ChatGPT and GPT-4 models.\n",
            "7System Instruction: You are an AI assistant. User will you give you a task. Your \n",
            "goal is to complete the task as faithfully as you can. While performing the task \n",
            "think step-by-step and justify your steps.\n",
            "User Instruction: Use the given data to calculate the median.\n",
            "Input:[7, 3, 8, 2, 10]\n",
            "System Instruction: You are an AI assistant. User will you give you a task. Your \n",
            "goal is to complete the task as faithfully as you can. While performing the task \n",
            "think step-by-step and justify your steps.\n",
            "User Instruction: Answer this question.\n",
            "Input:Which small lake lies between Windermere and Grasmere?System Instruction: You are an AI assistant. Provide a detailed answer so user \n",
            "don't need to search outside to understand the answer.\n",
            "User Instruction: In this task, you will be presented with a question having \n",
            "multiple possible answers in Italian language. And you should choose a most \n",
            "suitable option out of \"A\", \"B\", \"C\", \"D\", and \"E\" based on your commonsense \n",
            "knowledge. \n",
            "Input:Solve this question: Dove non riuscirestia vedere la luce? \n",
            "Options: A scrivaniaB frigoriferoC sole D universoE atticoOutput: To calculate the median, I will follow these steps:\n",
            "Step 1: Arrange the data in ascending order [2, 3, 7, 8, 10]\n",
            "Step 2: Determine if the data set has an odd or even number of values\n",
            "The data set has 5 values, which is an odd number.\n",
            "Step 3: Find the middle value\n",
            "Since the data set has an odd number of values, the median is the middle \n",
            "value in the ordered list. The middle value in the list [2, 3, 7, 8, 10] is 7.\n",
            "Output: Based on the given options and the context of the question, \"Dove \n",
            "non riusciresti a vedere la luce?\" (Where would you not be able to see \n",
            "light?), the most suitable answer would be:B frigorifero(refrigerator). \n",
            "This is because when the refrigerator door is closed, you would not be able \n",
            "to see the light inside it. In the other options, light is generally visible or \n",
            "present:\n",
            "A scrivania(desk) -Light is usually present around a desk. \n",
            "C sole (sun) -The sun is the primary source of light in our solar system.\n",
            "D universo(universe) -Light is present throughout the universe in the form \n",
            "of stars, galaxies, etc.\n",
            "E attico(attic) -Attics typically have windows or other sources of light, \n",
            "making it possible to see light there.\n",
            "Output: To answer this question, I will search for information about the small \n",
            "lake located between Windermere and Grasmere.\n",
            "Step 1: Identify the location of Windermere and Grasmere. They are both \n",
            "located in the Lake District National Park, in the county of Cumbria, England.\n",
            "Step 2: Research the lakes in the Lake District. The Lake District is known for \n",
            "its many lakes, so I will look for a list of lakes in the area and their locations in \n",
            "relation to Windermere and Grasmere.\n",
            "Step 3: Find the small lake between Windermere and Grasmere. \n",
            "After researching the lakes in the Lake District, I found that Rydal Water is a \n",
            "small lake situated between Windermere and Grasmere.Figure 5: Explanation-tuning with GPT-4. In addition to user instructions and input, system\n",
            "instructions are provided to guide the system to form a well-reasoned and cogent response.\n",
            "System instructions are sampled from a diverse instruction set including chain-of-thought\n",
            "reasoning steps, explain like I’m five, being helpful and informative, etc. Such rich and\n",
            "well-structured response allows tuning small models to mimic the thinking process of GPT-4\n",
            "on⟨{system instruction, user instruction, input}, output ⟩pairs.\n",
            "to the model on how to behave and respond. They are written in natural language and\n",
            "separated from the user messages by using the role of “system” in the JSON request. System\n",
            "instructions can specify the tone, task, format, and limitations of the model’s responses.\n",
            "System instructions are also a way of improving the safety of model responses. For example,\n",
            "a set of system instructions designed for safety harness could be:\n",
            "•The assistant must not generate harmful or offensive content.a set of system instructions designed for safety harness could be:\n",
            "•The assistant must not generate harmful or offensive content.\n",
            "•The assistant must respect the privacy and consent of the user.\n",
            "•The assistant must acknowledge its limitations and uncertainties.\n",
            "3 Explanation Tuning\n",
            "To address the shortcomings of existing works, we tap into large-scale training data with\n",
            "diverse tasks augmented with complex instructions and rich signals. Specifically, our data\n",
            "contains human and augmented system instructions for a large collection of tasks sampled\n",
            "from FLAN-v2 (aka Flan 2022) [ 19]. Given the large size of the FLAN-v2 collection and\n",
            "varying number of examples for constituent datasets and tasks, we sample from a mixture of\n",
            "tasks from different categories (described in the next section) to create our training data.\n",
            "3.1 Dataset Construction\n",
            "Each instance in our training data consists of the following triple: ⟨System message, User\n",
            "query, LFM response ⟩. Thesystem message , placed at the start of the prompt, provides\n",
            "the LFM with essential context, guidelines, and other pertinent details. We leverage the\n",
            "system message to vary the length of the response; outline the assistant’s character; establish\n",
            "acceptable and non-acceptable LFM behavior; and determine the structure of the agent’s\n",
            "response. The user query defines the actual task we want the LFM to perform. To obtain\n",
            "a large and diverse set of user queries we utilize the FLAN-v2 collection [ 19]. We sample 5\n",
            "million user queries from FLAN-v2 for which we collect ChatGPT responses. We further\n",
            "sample 1million instructions from the 5million set for which we collect GPT-4 responses.\n",
            "All the queries to the agents are augmented with system instructions, as outlined below.\n",
            "83.1.1 System Messages\n",
            "We hand-craft a total of 16system messages designed to evoke different kinds of responses\n",
            "from the LFM. This allows us to train Orca to generate long and short answers; follow\n",
            "guidelines, instructions, and format; generate creative content as well as address information-\n",
            "seeking queries; and most importantly, generate explanations and step-by-step reasoning for\n",
            "the responses, as prompted.\n",
            "Id. System Message\n",
            "1 <empty system message>\n",
            "2You are an AI assistant. Provide a detailed answer so user don’t need to search outside to\n",
            "understand the answer.\n",
            "3You are an AI assistant. You will be given a task. You must generate a detailed and long\n",
            "answer.\n",
            "4You are a helpful assistant, who always provide explanation. Think like you are answering\n",
            "to a five year old.\n",
            "5You are an AI assistant that follows instruction extremely well. Help as much as you can.\n",
            "6You are an AI assistant that helps people find information. Provide a detailed answer so\n",
            "user don’t need to search outside to understand the answer.\n",
            "7You are an AI assistant. User will you give you a task. Your goal is to complete the task\n",
            "as faithfully as you can. While performing the task think step-by-step and justify your\n",
            "steps.\n",
            "8You should describe the task and explain your answer. While answering a multiple choice\n",
            "question, first output the correct answer(s). Then explain why other answers are wrong.\n",
            "Think like you are answering to a five year old.\n",
            "9 Explain how you used the definition to come up with the answer.\n",
            "10You are an AI assistant. You should describe the task and explain your answer. While\n",
            "answering a multiple choice question, first output the correct answer(s). Then explain\n",
            "why other answers are wrong. You might need to use additional knowledge to answer the\n",
            "question.\n",
            "11You are an AI assistant that helps people find information. User will you give you a\n",
            "question. Your task is to answer as faithfully as you can. While answering think step-by-\n",
            "step and justify your answer.\n",
            "12User will you give you a task with some instruction. Your job is follow the instructions as\n",
            "faithfully as you can. While answering think step-by-step and justify your answer.\n",
            "13You are a teacher. Given a task, you explain in simple steps what the task is asking, any\n",
            "guidelines it provides and how to use those guidelines to find the answer.\n",
            "14You are an AI assistant, who knows every language and how to translate one language to\n",
            "another. Given a task, you explain in simple steps what the task is asking, any guidelines\n",
            "that it provides. You solve the task and show how you used the guidelines to solve the\n",
            "task.\n",
            "15Given a definition of a task and a sample input, break the definition into small parts.\n",
            "Each of those parts will have some instruction. Explain their meaning by showing an\n",
            "example that meets the criteria in the instruction. Use the following format:\n",
            "Part #: a key part of the definition.\n",
            "Usage: Sample response that meets the criteria from the key part. Explain why you think\n",
            "it meets the criteria.\n",
            "16 You are an AI assistant that helps people find information.\n",
            "Table 2: System instructions used to augment user instructions and task descriptions to\n",
            "query large foundation models for explanation tuning. System messages are designed to\n",
            "preserve the ability of the model to generate both short and long answers.\n",
            "We have crafted different system messages for different sub-collections of the FLAN-v2\n",
            "collection. Table 2 lists all the system instructions used to generate our training data.\n",
            "Figure 6 shows the distribution of system messages across different sub-collections. Note that\n",
            "system message #8 and system message#10 are sampled only for multiple-choice questions;\n",
            "thus they are less in number.\n",
            "3.1.2 Dataset Description and Sampling from the FLAN-v2 Collection\n",
            "The FLAN-v2 Collection [ 19] consists of five sub-collections, namely, CoT, NiV2, T0, Flan\n",
            "2021, Dialogue. Each sub-collection contains multiple tasks, where each task is a collection\n",
            "91 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 11 12 13 14 15 160.000.050.100.150.200.250.300.35frequencysub-collection = COT\n",
            "1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 11 12 13 14 15 16sub-collection = NiV2\n",
            "1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 11 12 13 14 15 16\n",
            "system message id0.000.050.100.150.200.250.300.35frequencysub-collection = T0\n",
            "1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 11 12 13 14 15 16\n",
            "system message idsub-collection = Flan2021Figure 6: Relative frequency of system messages in different collections of our training data.\n",
            "of queries. Each sub-collection is associated with multiple academic datasets. One or more\n",
            "tasks are created from each dataset, focusing on zero shot and few-shot queries. In this\n",
            "work, we sample only zero-shot queries for training Orca. We have not sampled from the Di-\n",
            "alogue sub-collection as the queries often lack context to elicit useful response from ChatGPT.\n",
            "Mixture Name Sampling Algorithm Original Size Sampled\n",
            "CoT No Sampling 150K 150K\n",
            "NIV2 Stratified Sampling 5M 440K\n",
            "FLAN2021 Stratified Sampling >28.9M 2.5M\n",
            "T0 Stratified Sampling 85.7M 2M\n",
            "Dialog Skipped 22.5M 0\n",
            "Table 3: Construction of our training data with 5million samples.\n",
            "Zero-Shot CoT : The zero-shot Chain-Of-Thought (CoT) collection contains a total of\n",
            "18 tasks involving math word problem solving, natural language inference, common-sense\n",
            "reasoning, science question answering, odd-one-out reasoning. Each query in this dataset\n",
            "is geared for chain-of-thought response. Figure 7 shows a demonstrative example from the\n",
            "CoT collection. It also shows the human written response that is part of the original dataset,\n",
            "ChatGPT generated response and GPT-4 response. While all the sources agree on the final\n",
            "answer, ChatGPT and GPT-4 augmented with system instructions generate quite detailed\n",
            "responses as opposed to the human authored answer. The 18tasks contain approximately\n",
            "150thousand queries in total. We include all of them in our 5million set.\n",
            "NiV2: NiV2 contains a total of 1560tasks and roughly 5million queries. The number of\n",
            "queries vary in each task. Figure 8 shows the distribution of the tasks along with task types.\n",
            "We randomly sample 300queries from each task, and the entire task data containing lesser\n",
            "number of queries. This gives us a total of 440thousand queries.\n",
            "Flan 2021 : Flan 2021 collection contains a total of 142tasks that are created from 62\n",
            "datasets. The entire Flan 2021 collection from the published script is quite large and\n",
            "expensive to augment. In order to sample a diverse and representative subset, we generate\n",
            "at most 1million queries from each task, which gives us roughly 28.9million queries in total.\n",
            "Each task in this collection contains varying number of queries. We sample a total of 2.5\n",
            "million queries from this collection of 85.7 million queries. The sampling process is outlined\n",
            "in Algorithm 1.\n",
            "10### System:\n",
            "You are an AI assistant that helps people find information. User will you give you a question.\n",
            "Your task is to answer as faithfully as you can. While answering think step-by-step and\n",
            "justify your answer.\n",
            "### Human:\n",
            "Pick which sentence is not logical.\n",
            "Options:\n",
            "- Sentence A: \"people in the desert often look forward to flood\"\n",
            "- Sentence B: \"people in the desert often look forward to rain\"\n",
            "Hmmm, let me think. I want to lay out the solution in details.\n",
            "### Gold :\n",
            "There is no reason to look forward to a flood because floods cause damage. The answer is\n",
            "Sentence A.\n",
            "### ChatGPT :\n",
            "Sure, let’s break it down step by step.\n",
            "1. Read the sentences carefully.\n",
            "2. Identify the difference between the two sentences.\n",
            "3. Determine which sentence is not logical based on the difference.\n",
            "Now let’s apply these steps to the given sentences:\n",
            "1. Sentence A: \"people in the desert often look forward to flood\"\n",
            "- This sentence suggests that people in the desert are eagerly anticipating a flood. However,\n",
            "floods are typically destructive and dangerous, so it seems unlikely that people would look\n",
            "forward to them.\n",
            "2. Sentence B: \"people in the desert often look forward to rain\"\n",
            "- This sentence suggests that people in the desert are eagerly anticipating rain. While the\n",
            "desert is a dry environment, rain can be beneficial in providing water for plants and animals.\n",
            "3. Based on the above analysis, it can be concluded that Sentence A is not logical as it\n",
            "suggests that people in the desert look forward to something that is typically harmful and\n",
            "dangerous. Therefore, the answer is Sentence A: \"people in the desert often look forward to\n",
            "flood\".\n",
            "### GPT4 :\n",
            "To determine which sentence is not logical, let’s examine each sentence and its meaning in\n",
            "the context of people living in a desert.\n",
            "Sentence A: \"people in the desert often look forward to flood\"\n",
            "- This sentence implies that people living in a desert are eagerly awaiting a flood. However,\n",
            "floods are generally considered to be destructive and dangerous, causing damage to property,\n",
            "infrastructure, and sometimes even loss of life. It is not logical for people to look forward to\n",
            "such a disastrous event.\n",
            "Sentence B: \"people in the desert often look forward to rain\"\n",
            "- This sentence implies that people living in a desert are eagerly awaiting rain. Rain is\n",
            "typically beneficial in a desert environment, as it provides water for drinking, agriculture,\n",
            "and replenishing natural resources. It is logical for people living in a desert to look forward\n",
            "to rain, as it can bring relief from the harsh, dry conditions.\n",
            "Based on the analysis of both sentences, it can be concluded that Sentence A (“people\n",
            "in the desert often look forward to flood”) is not logical, as it suggests that people are\n",
            "eagerly anticipating a destructive event, which is not a reasonable expectation. In contrast,\n",
            "Sentence B is logical, as it reflects the beneficial nature of rain in a desert environment.\n",
            "Figure 7: Demonstrative example from Flan-CoT Collection.\n",
            "111 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 12 2 2 2 2 2 23 3 3 3 3 34 4 4 4 456 6 6 67 71012 12 12 13 14 15 16 17 192430 32 32 35 37 39 39 42 44 51 53 59 65 69 76 78 8095 101122 137 143207 211278# of Tasks\n",
            "1101001000\n",
            "Image CaptionArtAstronomyBusiness EthicsEconometricsElectrical EngineeringHuman SexualityInternational LawFormal FallacyManagementMarketingMedical GeneticsPrehistoryAccountingPublic RelationsSecurity: National SecurityUS Foreign PolicyPop CultureFormal logicSQLLiteraturePsychologyMoral ScenariosPhilosophyConferenceChemistryGeographyEconomicsJurisprudenceAnimalsGameDebatepediaLogicPhysicsNutritionProfessionsPersonal NarrativesLinguisticsEnglish ExamsGlobal FactsWorld ReligionsStatisticsSportsMedicineStereotypesFoodCountriesMoviesScientific Research PapersComputer ScienceHealthcareBiologyKnowledge BaseAnthropologyJusticeBooksSchool Science TextbooksGovernment and PoliticsCodePublic PlacesFictionWebStoryLawNatural ScienceNarrativeReviewsSocial MediaMiscellaneousHistoryMathematicsTED TalksDialogueSociologyCaptionsCommonsenseWikipediaNewsFigure 8: NiV2 task distribution reproduced from [25].\n",
            "Algorithm 1: Sampling Algorithm for Flan 2021 and T0 collection.\n",
            "Input:tasks T={t1, t2, ..., tm}, number of queries to sample n\n",
            "Output: sampled queries Q={q1, q2, ..., qn}\n",
            "Q←empty list\n",
            "while|Q|< ndo\n",
            "t←randomly sample a task from T\n",
            "q←randomly sample a query without replacement from t\n",
            "addqtoQ\n",
            "iftis emptythen\n",
            "remove tfrom T\n",
            "end\n",
            "end\n",
            "return Q\n",
            "T0: T0 collection contains a total of 193tasks that are associated with 35training datasets.\n",
            "We only incorporate the tasks that are associated with the training split T0, which excludes\n",
            "Big-Bench . This is important as we include Big-Bench-Hard in our evaluation benchmark.\n",
            "T0 collection contains roughly 85.7million queries with the number of queries varying in\n",
            "each task. We sample a total of 2million queries from this collection using the sampling\n",
            "process in Algorithm 1.\n",
            "3.1.3 ChatGPT as Teaching Assistant\n",
            "1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 1602004006008001000120014001600gpt4\n",
            "chatgpt\n",
            "Figure 9: Comparing GPT-4 and ChatGPT response length distribution for different system\n",
            "messages. The system message ids {1,2, ...,16}correspond to the row numbers in Table 2.\n",
            "We observe GPT-4 to elicit longer responses compared to ChatGPT.\n",
            "12Teacher Cost per 1000tokenRequests per\n",
            "minuteTokens per\n",
            "minute\n",
            "ChatGPT $0.002 300 120 ,000\n",
            "GPT-4 (8K) $0.03(prompt),\n",
            "$0.06(token com-\n",
            "pletion)18 10 ,000\n",
            "Table 4: Pricing and quota limit for data collection from ChatGPT (GPT-3.5-turbo) and\n",
            "GPT-4 endpoints using Azure OpenAI service.\n",
            "We generate 5million instructions (queries augmented with system messages) referred\n",
            "as FLAN-5M following sampling techniques outlined in the previous section. We further\n",
            "randomly sample 1million queries from FLAN-5M to create another split, referred as\n",
            "FLAN-1M. We use Azure OpenAI API11to collect ChatGPT (GPT-3.5-turbo) responses to\n",
            "FLAN-5M, and GPT-4 responses to FLAN-1M.\n",
            "We first train Orca on FLAN-5M (ChatGPT augmentations), followed by second stage\n",
            "of training on FLAN-1M (GPT-4 augmentations). Essentially, we leverage ChatGPT as\n",
            "intermediate teacher assistant for two reasons.\n",
            "•Capacity gap: Orca with 13Bparameters is many times smaller than GPT-4 (size\n",
            "undisclosed). Leveraging an intermediate teacher with reduced gap in capabilities, in this\n",
            "case ChatGPT, has been shown to improve imitation learning performance for smaller\n",
            "students in knowledge distillation [ 15]. This can be viewed as a form of progressive\n",
            "learning or curriculum learning, where the student first learns from easier examples,\n",
            "followed by harder ones: with the assumption that longer responses are difficult to mimic\n",
            "than shorter ones, along with improved reasoning and step-by-step explanation from a\n",
            "larger teacher.\n",
            "•Cost12andTime13: Large-scaledatacollectionfromAzureOpenAIAPI’sareconstrained\n",
            "by, (a) rate limit in terms of allowed requests per minute to prevent throttling the\n",
            "endpoints, (b) available tokens per minute due to serving latency, and (c) the dollar cost\n",
            "for length of prompt and token completion (demonstrated in Table 4) with the ChatGPT\n",
            "API being much faster and cheaper than the GPT-4 endpoint. To this end, we collect\n",
            "5×as much data from ChatGPT compared to GPT-4.\n",
            "Figure 9 shows the response length distribution for ChatGPT and GPT-4 corresponing to\n",
            "different system messages. We observe that GPT-4 responses are on an average 1.5×longer\n",
            "than that of ChatGPT. This allows Orca to progressively learn from increasing complexity\n",
            "of teacher explanations. We demonstrate the impact of teacher assistance via ablation\n",
            "experiments.\n",
            "3.2 Training\n",
            "This section provides an overview of the training process for Orca, covering different aspects\n",
            "of tokenization, sequencing, and loss computation.\n",
            "Tokenization : We utilize the LLaMA Byte Pair Encoding (BPE) tokenizer for processing\n",
            "the input examples. Notably, the LLaMA tokenizer splits all numbers into individual digits,\n",
            "and fallbacks to bytes to decompose unknown UTF-8 characters. To deal with variable\n",
            "length sequences we add a padding token “[[PAD]]” into the LLaMA tokenizer vocabulary.\n",
            "The resulting vocabulary contains 32,001tokens.\n",
            "Packing : To optimize the training process and utilize the available computational resources\n",
            "efficiently, we employ the packing technique [ 26]. This method involves concatenating\n",
            "11https://azure.microsoft.com/en-us/products/cognitive-services/openai-service/\n",
            "12https://azure.microsoft.com/en-us/pricing/details/cognitive-services/\n",
            "openai-service/\n",
            "13https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/azure/cognitive-services/openai/quotas-limits\n",
            "13multiple input examples into a single sequence, which is then used for training the model.\n",
            "The packing is performed such that the total length of the concatenated sequence does\n",
            "not exceed max_len = 2,048tokens. Particularly, we shuffle the input examples and then\n",
            "partition the examples into groups such that length of the concatenated sequence in each\n",
            "group is at most max_len . Padding tokens are then added to the concatenated sequence to\n",
            "achieve a uniform input sequence length of max_len with a packing factor of 2.7examples\n",
            "per sequence given the length distribution of augmented instructions in our training data.\n",
            "Loss: For the purpose of training Orca, we compute the loss onlyon the tokens generated\n",
            "by the teacher model, i.e., it learns to generate responses conditioned on the system message\n",
            "and task instructions. This approach ensures that the model focuses on learning from the\n",
            "most relevant and informative tokens, improving the overall efficiency and effectiveness of\n",
            "the training process.\n",
            "Compute: We trained Orca on 20NVIDIA A 100GPUs with 80GB memory. It took 160\n",
            "hours to train Orca on FLAN-5M (ChatGPT augmentations) for 4epochs, and 40hours to\n",
            "continue training on FLAN-1M (GPT-4 augmentations) for the same number of epochs.\n",
            "It took 2 weeks and 3 weeks respectively to collect data from GPT-3.5-turbo (ChatGPT)\n",
            "and GPT-4 from multiple endpoints accounting for the throttling limit, endpoint load, and\n",
            "length distribution of query and response pairs.\n",
            "4 Experiment Setup\n",
            "We setup a rigorous evaluation protocol that considers a host of different abilities including\n",
            "writing, comprehension, analytical, mathematical and logical reasoning.\n",
            "4.1 Baselines\n",
            "We compare Orca14against the following baselines:\n",
            "•Text-Davinci-003 (TD-003): Text-Davinci-003 belong to the GPT-3.515series of\n",
            "generation model that is optimized for text completion. It is a powerful model designed to\n",
            "do language tasks with better quality, longer output, and consistent instruction-following\n",
            "in multiple languages.\n",
            "•ChatGPT: ChatGPT (GPT-3.5-turbo) is the most capable GPT-3.5 model and an\n",
            "improvement on text-davinci-003. It is optimized for chat and trained using conversations\n",
            "with humans. OpenAI released this chatbot in November 2022.\n",
            "•GPT-4: GPT-4 is the latest model in the GPT family and exhibits human-level per-\n",
            "formance on various professional and academic benchmarks. Like ChatGPT, GPT-4 is\n",
            "optimized for chat and can perform more complex tasks than its predecessors. It typically\n",
            "shows substantially higher performance than GPT-3.5 models, especially on tasks that\n",
            "require complex reasoning. For both ChatGPT and GPT-4, we use the OpenAI API\n",
            "version“2023-03-15-preview\" .\n",
            "•Vicuna: Vicuna [9] is an open-source chatbot that was trained by fine-tuning LLaMA[ 10]\n",
            "on user-shared conversations collected from ShareGPT. In this work, we use the Vicuna\n",
            "model consisting of 13B parameters. Vicuna has been the leading open-source language\n",
            "model in multiple leaderboards including Chatbot Arena16and Open LLM Leaderboard17.\n",
            "We used Vicuna model checkpoint current as of April 21, 2023.\n",
            "14Unless specified otherwise, we use <empty system message> (Id. 1 from Table 2) as the system\n",
            "message, temperature as 0.7 for Orca in all our experiments.\n",
            "15https://platform.openai.com/docs/models/gpt-3-5\n",
            "16https://lmsys.org/blog/2023-05-03-arena/\n",
            "17https://huggingface.co/spaces/HuggingFaceH4/open_llm_leaderboard\n",
            "14Dataset Task Type # Examples\n",
            "Vicuna Prompts [9] Open-ended questions and generation 80\n",
            "Awesome Prompts [27] Open-ended questions and generation 164\n",
            "WizardLM Prompts [8] Open-ended questions and generation 218\n",
            "AGIEval [1] Suite of professional and academic exams /\n",
            "multiple-choice questions3546\n",
            "Big-Bench Hard [11] Suite of complex reasoning tasks / multiple-\n",
            "choice questions5511\n",
            "Table 5: Orca evaluation benchmarks. Dataset statistics.\n",
            "### System: You are a helpful and precise assistant for checking the quality of the\n",
            "answer.\n",
            "### Human:\n",
            "[Question]\n",
            "Question\n",
            "[The Start of Assistant 1’s Answer]\n",
            "Answer 1\n",
            "[The Start of Assistant 2’s Answer]\n",
            "Answer 2\n",
            "[System]\n",
            "We would like to request your feedback on the performance of two AI assistants in\n",
            "response to the user question displayed above.\n",
            "Please rate the helpfulness, relevance, accuracy, level of details of their responses.\n",
            "Each assistant receives an overall score on a scale of 1 to 10, where a higher score\n",
            "indicates better overall performance.\n",
            "Please first output a single line containing only two values indicating the scores\n",
            "for Assistant 1 and 2, respectively. The two scores are separated by a space. In\n",
            "the subsequent line, please provide a comprehensive explanation of your evaluation,\n",
            "avoiding any potential bias and ensuring that the order in which the responses were\n",
            "presented does not affect your judgment.\n",
            "### Assistant:\n",
            "Figure 10: Prompt template from Vicuna [ 9] to rate the writing quality of the candidate\n",
            "assistant model against the reference model (e.g., ChatGPT, GPT-4).\n",
            "4.2 Tasks\n",
            "We provide a detailed account of the tasks used to evaluate Orca’s capability in terms of\n",
            "open-ended generation and its ability to reason and comprehend complex reasoning tasks in\n",
            "this section. Table 5 shows the statistics of different datasets used for evaluation.\n",
            "4.2.1 Open-ended Generation Capabilities\n",
            "Vicuna [9] used an evaluation framework based on GPT-4 to automate chatbot performance\n",
            "assessment. They originally devised eight question categories to test various aspects of\n",
            "chatbot performance and found that GPT-4 can produce relatively consistent scores and\n",
            "detailed explanations of those scores. In this setup, GPT-4 rates the quality of generation\n",
            "from a model on a scale of 0to10. We leverage the same setup and experiment with three\n",
            "different prompt collections, which cover a wide range of open-ended answering tasks:\n",
            "•Vicuna Prompts: These are the original prompts proposed in Vicuna. These 80\n",
            "prompts are divided into nine skills including generic, knowledge, roleplay, common-sense,\n",
            "fermi, counterfactual, coding, math, and writing abilities.\n",
            "•Awesome Prompts: Awesome ChatGPT prompts [ 27] is a collection of prompt examples\n",
            "that are primarily used with the ChatGPT model as reference.\n",
            "15Exams #Participants Tasks Subject # Exam-\n",
            "ples# Avg.\n",
            "Token\n",
            "GRE 340KAQuA-RAT Math 254 77GMAT 150K\n",
            "Civil Service\n",
            "Examination2M LogiQA Logic 651 144\n",
            "Law School\n",
            "170KLSAT-AR Law-Analytics 230 154\n",
            "Admission LSAT-LR Law-Logic 510 178\n",
            "Test (LSAT) LSAT-RC Law-Reading 260 581\n",
            "SAT 1.7MSAT-English English 206 656\n",
            "SAT-Math Math 220 54\n",
            "Table 6: Breakdown of tasks in AGIEval benchmark as reported in [ 1]. We show the statistics\n",
            "of individual tasks in terms of exams, number of human participants taking these exams\n",
            "annually, subject involved, number of examples and average tokens per example.\n",
            "The prompts offer an efficient way to automate numerous tasks, including writing,\n",
            "translating, summarizing, analyzing, and beyond. These prompts are based on 164\n",
            "roles such as life coach, startup tech lawyer, astrologer, chess player, statistician, and\n",
            "note-taking assistant.\n",
            "•WizardLM Prompts: WizardLM prompts [ 8] are a collection of prompt examples based\n",
            "on real-world tasks. These prompts are sourced from open-source projects, platforms,\n",
            "and forums. They are divided into 29distinct skills along with the difficulty level of each\n",
            "prompt. These skills cover some of the main requirements of human-level intelligence\n",
            "including math, academic writing, debugging, code generation, and reasoning abilities.\n",
            "4.2.2 Reasoning Capabilities\n",
            "•AGIEval: AGIEval [ 1] is a human-centric benchmark that evaluates the general abilities\n",
            "of foundation models in tasks related to human cognition and problem-solving. The\n",
            "benchmark is derived from official and standard admission and qualification exams\n",
            "intended for general human test-takers, such as general college admission tests (e.g.,\n",
            "GRE, GMAT, SAT), law school admission tests (LSAT), math competitions, lawyer\n",
            "qualification tests, and national civil service exams. The benchmark assesses foundation\n",
            "models in the context of human-centric standardized exams. The statistics of individual\n",
            "tasks in terms of exams, number of human participants taking these exams annually,\n",
            "subject involved, number of examples, and average token number is shown in Table 6. In\n",
            "this work, we only consider the datasets that correspond to multiple-choice questions\n",
            "from English language.\n",
            "•Big-Bench Hard (BBH): BIG-Bench Hard is a suite of 23challenging BIG-Bench [ 4]\n",
            "tasks that were introduced to measure the capabilities and limitations of large language\n",
            "models. Thesearethetasksforwhichpriorlanguagemodelevaluationsdidnotoutperform\n",
            "the average human-rater. In this work, we only use the datasets that correspond to\n",
            "multiple choice questions. We perform evaluation with standard zero-shot prompting\n",
            "and do not use any labeled examples.\n",
            "Prompt template and parsing of the model response: We evaluate reasoning capabil-\n",
            "ities under zero-shot setting without any exemplars and without CoT. Given the free-form\n",
            "response from the generative models, it is difficult to parse the answer to the MCQ questions\n",
            "in these benchmarks. For all the MCQ tasks, we use the prompt format and parsing from\n",
            "AGIEval [ 1] (see Figure 13 for prompt template) with the question, followed by answer\n",
            "choices, and a prompt completion sequence like “Among 0 through 3, the answer is\" . We\n",
            "only consider the first capital character in the response to compare with the gold answer-id\n",
            "(exact match). Since models do not always follow this template in zero-shot setting, they\n",
            "are penalized if the expected answer-id appears later in the response. We employ the same\n",
            "parsing logic to all the models’ responses for consistency.\n",
            "16Dataset Reference Vicuna-13B Orca-13B\n",
            "Vicuna PromptsChatGPT 92 101.5(10.4%)\n",
            "GPT-4 73.8 87.7(18.9%)\n",
            "Awesome PromptsChatGPT 86.5 98.1(13.5%)\n",
            "GPT-4 77.8 89.3(14.9%)\n",
            "WizardLM PromptsChatGPT 77.1 84.9(10.1%)\n",
            "GPT-4 69.1 78.4(13.5%)\n",
            "AverageChatGPT 85.2 94.8(11.3%)\n",
            "GPT-4 73.6 85.1(13.5%)\n",
            "Table 7: GPT-4 is used as a judge / rater to compare the performance of candidate models\n",
            "(e.g., Vicuna, Orca) against ChatGPT (GPT-3.5-turbo) and GPT-4 as reference models. We\n",
            "report the percentage improvement in the overall score obtained by the candidate compared\n",
            "to that of the reference model. Percentage improvement of Orca over Vicuna is shown in\n",
            "parenthesis. Overall, Orca retains 95%of ChatGPT quality and 85%of GPT-4 quality\n",
            "aggregated across all datasets as assessed by GPT-4, a 10-point improvement over Vicuna.\n",
            "Figure 1 shows performance of other models including LLaMA-13B, Alpaca-13B and Bard.\n",
            "5 Evaluation for Open-ended Generation\n",
            "Table 7 shows the performance of candidate models (e.g., Vicuna, Orca) against ChatGPT\n",
            "(GPT-3.5-turbo) and GPT-4 as reference models on the three datasets, where GPT-4 is used\n",
            "as a judge / rater. The performance of a candidate model is measured as the percentage\n",
            "improvement in the overall score obtained by the candidate model compared to that of the\n",
            "reference model.\n",
            "•Orca retains 95%of ChatGPT quality and 85%of GPT-4 quality aggregated across all\n",
            "datasets as assessed by GPT-4. Orca shows a 10-point improvement over Vicuna on an\n",
            "aggregate.\n",
            "•Orca performs on par with ChatGPT on Vicuna’s original evaluation setting. In this\n",
            "setting, the candidate model is compared to ChatGPT with GPT-4 as rater on the Vicuna\n",
            "prompts dataset.\n",
            "•Orca exhibits strong performance for prompts that span across a wide range of generation\n",
            "roles. For the Awesome prompts dataset that spans 164 open-ended generation roles,\n",
            "Orca shows strong performance by retaining 98%of ChatGPT quality and 89%of GPT-4\n",
            "quality.\n",
            "Replication Note: We observe that there is a positive bias in GPT-4 evaluation towards\n",
            "the response of the first model in the comparison set. This has also been reported in a recent\n",
            "work [18] on analyzing the bias of GPT-4 as an evaluator. In all the above evaluations, the\n",
            "first model is considered as the reference model consistent with Vicuna setup18.\n",
            "6 Evaluation for Reasoning\n",
            "6.1 AGIEval Results\n",
            "Table 8 shows the standard zero-shot (no exemplars, no CoT) performance comparison\n",
            "of Orca against baseline models on the AGIEval benchmark on multiple-choice English\n",
            "questions. The performance on each of these tasks is measured using accuracy metric,\n",
            "following exactly the same evaluation setup as proposed in AGIEval [1].\n",
            "18The performance of Vicuna-13B on WizardLM prompts is 84.87 (close to WizardLM’s reported\n",
            "numbers), when Vicuna’s response (candidate model) is presented first, before ChatGPT’s response\n",
            "(reference model) in the prompt. This indicates that GPT-4 ratings can be significantly biased.\n",
            "17Task Human\n",
            "-AvgHuman\n",
            "-TopTD-\n",
            "003Chat\n",
            "GPTGPT-\n",
            "4Vicuna-\n",
            "13BOrca-\n",
            "13B\n",
            "AQuA-RAT 85 100 29.9 31.9 40.6 20.1 27.9\n",
            "(39.2%)\n",
            "LogiQA 86 95 22.7 35 49.3 29.8 35.2\n",
            "(18.1%)\n",
            "LSAT-AR 56 91 21.7 24.4 35.2 20.4 21.3\n",
            "(4.3%)\n",
            "LSAT-LR 56 91 47.5 52.6 80.6 32.6 43.9\n",
            "(34.9%)\n",
            "LSAT-RC 56 91 64.7 65.4 85.9 32.7 57.3\n",
            "(75.0%)\n",
            "SAT-Math 66 94 35.5 42.7 64.6 28.6 32.3\n",
            "(12.7%)\n",
            "SAT-English 66 94 74.8 81.1 88.8 44.2 76.7\n",
            "(73.6%)\n",
            "SAT-English\n",
            "(w/o Psg.)66 94 38.4 44.2 51 26.2 38.8\n",
            "(48.1%)\n",
            "Average 67.1 93.8 41.9 47.2 62 29.3 41.7\n",
            "(42.1%)\n",
            "Table 8: Zero-shot performance comparison of Text-da-vinci-003, ChatGPT, GPT-4, Vicuna,\n",
            "and Orca in AGIEval benchmark [ 1] on multiple-choice English questions. We report\n",
            "performance of Human, TD-003, ChatGPT and GPT-4 from [ 1]. Human performance\n",
            "is broken down into average and top performance. ‘Average’ corresponds to the average\n",
            "performance of all test takers, while ‘top’ corresponds to the performance of the top 1% of the\n",
            "test takers. Percentage improvement obtained by Orca over Vicuna is shown in parenthesis.\n",
            "Overall, Orca performs at par with Text-da-vinci-003; retaining 88%of ChatGPT quality;\n",
            "significantly lagging GPT-4; and outperforming Vicuna by 42%.\n",
            "•Orca performs at par with Text-da-Vinci-003, on an aggregate across all tasks, and retains\n",
            "88%of ChatGPT quality. However, Orca significantly lags GPT-4.\n",
            "•We observe that for such analytical and reasoning tasks, Vicuna performs significantly\n",
            "worse, retaining only 62%of ChatGPT quality as opposed to 85%for open-ended\n",
            "generation (Table 7 vs Table 8). This demonstrates the poor reasoning abilities of such\n",
            "open-source language models.\n",
            "•While performing on par with Text-da-Vinci-003 and 5points below ChatGPT, Orca\n",
            "demonstrates bigger gaps with ChatGPT on math-related tasks (in SAT, GRE, GMAT).\n",
            "•Compared to Vicuna, Orca shows much stronger performance outperforming it on every\n",
            "category with 42%relative improvment on average.\n",
            "•GPT-4’s performance surpasses all other models by far, but there is still a lot of headroom\n",
            "in this benchmark as the performance of all the models are significantly lower than human\n",
            "performance across all tasks.\n",
            "•The performance of Orca vary significantly based on the type of system message (see\n",
            "Table 9). For our trained model, the empty system message often works well.\n",
            "•ChatGPT dominates Orca in 450 examples across different tasks (ChatGPT-beats-Orca\n",
            "examples). Majority of those examples come from LSAT-LR (22%) and LogiQA (21%)\n",
            "tasks, while other LSAT tasks and SAT-English tasks contribute less than 10% each.\n",
            "•Orca beats ChatGPT in 325 examples across different tasks (Orca-beats-ChatGPT\n",
            "examples). Out of those examples, majority come from LogiQA (29%), while other LSAT\n",
            "tasks and SAT-English tasks contribute less than 10% each.\n",
            "Scaling and Teacher Assistance: To analyze the impact of progressive learning, we\n",
            "train Orca with only GPT-4 augmentations (FLAN-1M), and contrast with the full version\n",
            "trained on both ChatGPT (FLAN-5M) and GPT-4 (FLAN-1M) augmentations with results\n",
            "in Table 10. We observe that scaling the amount of explanation data by 5×with intermediate\n",
            "ChatGPT assistance significantly improves the model performance by 4.5points on aggregate.\n",
            "18Task / System Message Empty Follow Well Detailed Answer\n",
            "AQuA-RAT 27.9 21.3 25.2\n",
            "LogiQA 35.2 36.4 37.2\n",
            "LSAT-AR 21.3 19.6 20.9\n",
            "LSAT-LR 43.9 44.3 44.3\n",
            "LSAT-RC 57.3 60.2 61.7\n",
            "SAT-Math 32.3 27.3 30\n",
            "SAT-English 76.7 73.8 74.3\n",
            "SAT-English (w/o Psg.) 38.8 39.3 38.8\n",
            "Average 41.7 40.3 41.6\n",
            "Table 9: Zero-shot performance comparison of Orca with different system messages in\n",
            "AGIEval benchmark on multiple-choice English questions. The system messages and their\n",
            "identifiers from Table 2 correspond to <empty system message> (Id. 1), follow well (Id. 5)\n",
            "and detailed answer (Id. 2). Considering the performance with the best system instruction\n",
            "for each task, Orca has a performance gap of 4.4pts against ChatGPT.\n",
            "Task / Model Orca Orca-FLAN-1M (GPT-4 only)\n",
            "AQuA-RAT 27.9 21.65\n",
            "LogiQA 35.2 31.95\n",
            "LSAT-AR 21.3 18.7\n",
            "LSAT-LR 43.9 41.76\n",
            "LSAT-RC 57.3 51.67\n",
            "SAT-Math 32.3 26.82\n",
            "SAT-English 76.7 68.45\n",
            "SAT-English (w/o Psg.) 38.8 36.41\n",
            "Average 41.7 37.18\n",
            "Table 10: Zero-shot performance comparison of Orca trained on FLAM-5M (ChatGPT) and\n",
            "FLAN-1M (GPT-4), vs Orca trained only on FLAN-1M (GPT-4) in AGIEval benchmark on\n",
            "multiple-choice English questions.\n",
            "Analysis of 100 random ChatGPT-beats-Orca and Orca-beats-ChatGPT samples:\n",
            "•Domain knowledge: Models require specialized domain knowledge to solve some of\n",
            "the problems such as Tesla batteries, concepts from Chemistry, etc. 15% and 21% of the\n",
            "ChatGPT-beats-Orca and Orca-beats-ChatGPT examples respectively fall under this\n",
            "category.\n",
            "•Complex reasoning: Some examples require complex reasoning such as reasoning about\n",
            "more than five objects/persons. For example, the logical reasoning question that starts\n",
            "with “There are 6 rectangular vegetable ponds of the same size in a plastic shed, arranged\n",
            "in order from left to right? ” requires the model to capture spatial relationships of six\n",
            "ponds and perform spatial reasoning. 14% and 18% of the ChatGPT-beats-Orca and\n",
            "Orca-beats-ChatGPT examples respectively fall under complex reasoning category.\n",
            "•Long context: Some examples have long context (e.g., passage containing several\n",
            "paragraphs of text), which require reasoning over long spans of text. 16% of ChatGPT-\n",
            "beats-Orca examples have long context, while context of only 8% of Orca-beats-ChatGPT\n",
            "examples are long. This result highlights that ChatGPT has an edge over Orca in\n",
            "modeling long contexts.\n",
            "•Geometric reasoning: Examples such as “ The ratio of the volumes of a cube to that of\n",
            "the sphere which will fit inside the cube is? ” require reasoning about geometric objects.\n",
            "2% and 5% of the ChatGPT-beats-Orca and Orca-beats-ChatGPT examples respectively\n",
            "fall under this category, indicating the performance gap in geometric reasoning between\n",
            "the two models.\n",
            "190102030405060708090AQuA-RAT (GRE Math, GMAT Math)\n",
            "LogiQA (English, Civil Services)\n",
            "LSAT-AR\n",
            "LSAT-LR\n",
            "LSAT-RC SAT-MathSAT-EnglishSAT-English (w/o Psg.)Human Avg. ChatGPT GPT-4 Orca-13BFigure 11: Topical breakdown in performance of GPT-4, ChatGPT and Orca in the AGIEval\n",
            "benchmark on professional and academic exams.\n",
            "•LaTeX reasoning: Some examples have LaTeX typesetting in the question, which\n",
            "requires understanding of LaTeX symbols for solving these examples. For example, “ A\n",
            "line in the $x y$-plane passes through the origin and has a slope of $\\frac{1}{7}$. Which\n",
            "of the following points lies on the line? ” requires processing the fraction operator. 2%\n",
            "and 10% of the ChatGPT-beats-Orca and Orca-beats-ChatGPT examples respectively\n",
            "fall under this category.\n",
            "6.2 Big-Bench Hard Results\n",
            "Table 11 shows the zero-shot performance comparison of Orca against baseline models on\n",
            "Big-Bench Hard with standard zero-shot prompting (no exemplars, no CoT). Orca performs\n",
            "marginally better than ChatGPT on aggregate across all tasks; significantly lags\n",
            "GPT-4; and outperforms Vicuna by 113%.Similar to AGIEval, Vicuna performs poorly\n",
            "on sophisticated reasoning tasks in this benchmark.\n",
            "While significantly better than Vicuna and marginally better than ChatGPT, Orca’s average\n",
            "performance of 49.7%, lags GPT-4 by 26%. Note that GPT-4 has reported a data contami-\n",
            "nation issue with Big-Bench and that we are not aware of such issues with either LLaMA’s\n",
            "training data (the base model used by both Vicuna and Orca) or the Flan-V2 collection or\n",
            "Vicuna’s training data (ShareGPT).\n",
            "Given the close performance on average on BigBench-Hard, we take a deeper look at\n",
            "differences in performance between Orca and ChatGPT:\n",
            "Entailment and Semantic Understanding :\n",
            "•Orca performs better at entailment (formal fallacies) and semantic understanding (Dis-\n",
            "ambiguation QA and Snarks).\n",
            "•In the formal fallacies task, a model has to determine whether a given argument can\n",
            "be logically deduced from a set of statements, Orca achieves 4.5%improvement over\n",
            "ChatGPT on this task.\n",
            "20Task ChatGPT GPT-4 Vicuna-13B Orca-13B\n",
            "Boolean Expressions 82.8 77.6 40.8 72.0(76.5%)\n",
            "Causal Judgement 57.2 59.9 42.2 59.9(41.8%)\n",
            "Date Understanding 42.8 74.8 10.0 50.0(400.0%)\n",
            "Disambiguation QA 57.2 69.2 18.4 63.6(245.7%)\n",
            "Formal Fallacies 53.6 64.4 47.2 56.0(18.6%)\n",
            "Geometric Shapes 25.6 40.8 3.6 20.8(477.8%)\n",
            "Hyperbaton 69.2 62.8 44.0 64.0(45.5%)\n",
            "Logical Deduction (5 objects) 38.8 66.8 4.8 39.6(725.0%)\n",
            "Logical Deduction (7 objects) 39.6 66.0 1.2 36.0(2900.0%)\n",
            "Logical Deduction (3 objects) 60.4 94.0 16.8 57.6(242.9%)\n",
            "Movie Recommendation 55.4 79.5 43.4 78.3(80.6%)\n",
            "Navigate 55.6 68.8 46.4 57.6(24.1%)\n",
            "Penguins in a Table 45.9 76.7 15.1 42.5(181.8%)\n",
            "Reasoning about Colored Objects 47.6 84.8 12.0 48.4(303.3%)\n",
            "Ruin Names 56.0 89.1 15.7 39.5(151.2%)\n",
            "Salient Translation Error Detection 40.8 62.4 2.0 40.8(1940.0%)\n",
            "Snarks 59.0 87.6 28.1 62.4(122.0%)\n",
            "Sports Understanding 79.6 84.4 48.4 67.2(38.8%)\n",
            "Temporal Sequences 35.6 98.0 16.0 72.0(350.0%)\n",
            "Tracking Shuffled Objects (5 objects) 18.4 25.2 9.2 15.6(69.6%)\n",
            "Tracking Shuffled Objects (7 objects) 15.2 25.2 5.6 14.0(150.0%)\n",
            "Tracking Shuffled Objects (3 objects) 31.6 42.4 23.2 34.8(50.0%)\n",
            "Web of Lies 56.0 49.6 41.2 51.2(24.3%)\n",
            "Average 48.9 67.4 23.3 49.7(113.7%)\n",
            "Table 11: Zero-shot performance comparison of ChatGPT, GPT-4, Vicuna, and Orca on Big-\n",
            "Bench Hard (multiple-choice questions) without CoT. Performance improvements obtained\n",
            "by Orca over Vicuna is shown in parenthesis.\n",
            "•BBH benchmark has two semantic understanding tasks: Disambiguation QA, where\n",
            "a sentence is given with an ambiguous pronoun and the model needs to determine\n",
            "whether the pronoun can be deduced implicitly or the sentence is inherently ambiguous;\n",
            "and Snarks, where the goal is to identify sarcastic sentence from two nearly-identical\n",
            "sentences. Orca exceeds ChatGPT by 11.1%and 5.8%on Disambiguation QA and Snarks\n",
            "respectively.\n",
            "Temporal and Spatial Reasoning :\n",
            "•Orca shows substantially better reasoning capabilities in terms of temporal reasoning,\n",
            "spatial reasoning and color based reasoning compared to ChatGPT.\n",
            "•Orca outperforms ChatGPT on Temporal Sequences (temporal reasoning), Navigate\n",
            "(following navigation instructions), Colored Objects (identify color of objects given\n",
            "context) by 102%,3.6%, and 1.7%respectively.\n",
            "Causal Judgment :\n",
            "•Orcashowsgoodperformanceonthecausaljudgementtask, whichmeasuresthecapability\n",
            "of the model to answer a causal question about a short story.\n",
            "•Orca performs on par with GPT-4, while exceeding ChatGPT by 4.7%.\n",
            "Multilingual Understanding :\n",
            "•Orca and ChatGPT achieve parity on the salient translation error detection task (deter-\n",
            "mining the type of translation error in the translated sentence).\n",
            "•While this shows promising potential, we note that BBH offers limited evaluation of\n",
            "multilingual abilities and more evaluation is needed for better assessment.\n",
            "210102030405060708090100Boolean Expressions\n",
            "Causal Judgement\n",
            "Date Understanding\n",
            "Disambiguation QA\n",
            "Formal Fallacies\n",
            "Geometric Shapes\n",
            "Hyperbaton\n",
            "Logical Deduction (5 objects)\n",
            "Logical Deduction (7 objects)\n",
            "Logical Deduction (3 objects)\n",
            "Movie Recommendation\n",
            "Navigate Penguins in a TableReasoning about Colored ObjectsRuin NamesSalient Translation Error DetectionSnarksSports UnderstandingTemporal SequencesTracking Shuffled Objects (5 objects)Tracking Shuffled Objects (7 objects)Tracking Shuffled Objects (3 objects)Web of LiesChatGPT GPT-4 Orca-13BFigure 12: Breakdown in performance of GPT-4, ChatGPT and Orca on different tasks in\n",
            "BigBench-Hard.\n",
            "World Knowledge:\n",
            "•Orca underperforms ChatGPT for tasks that require world knowledge (e.g. sports, artists,\n",
            "humor, etc.) while doing better with movie recommendation.\n",
            "•For both Sports Understanding (determining the plausibility of a sentence related to\n",
            "sports) and Ruin Names (identifying edits to a name (artist, band, movie name) that\n",
            "change its meaning and results in a humorous name), Orca performs much worse that\n",
            "ChatGPT, potentially due to lack of sufficient knowledge about sports, artists, bands,\n",
            "movies and also usage of humor in English language.\n",
            "•On the other hand, it performs significantly better than ChatGPT and marginally lower\n",
            "to GPT-4 in the movie recommendation task (given a list of movies, recommend a relevant\n",
            "movie from a list of movie choices).\n",
            "Logical and Geometric Reasoning :\n",
            "•ChatGPT shows superior logical reasoning capabilities compared to Orca.\n",
            "•In the Boolean expressions and the Web of lies task (which test logical reasoning expressed\n",
            "in boolean expression or natural language), ChatGPT performs better than Orca by at\n",
            "least 9%.\n",
            "•In the logical deduction task (deducing the order of a sequence of objects), Orca performs\n",
            "better than ChatGPT for five objects task, but ChatGPT shines for both three and seven\n",
            "objects tasks, outperforming Orca by at least 4.9%.\n",
            "•ChatGPT has better geometric reasoning capabilities than Orca as measured by geometric\n",
            "shape task (predicting shape from a full SVG path element). ChatGPT outperforms\n",
            "Orca by 23%on this task, which highlights the lack of geometric reasoning capabilities of\n",
            "Orca compared to ChatGPT.\n",
            "Table Understanding :\n",
            "•ChatGPT has better table understanding and reasoning capabilities than Orca.\n",
            "•In the penguins in a table task (answering questions based on understanding facts in\n",
            "a table), Orca lags behind ChatGPT by 7.4%, thereby highlighting Orca’s poor table\n",
            "understanding and reasoning capabilities compared to ChatGPT.\n",
            "22Replication note: We reported the performance of Text-da-Vinci-003, GPT-3.5-turbo\n",
            "(ChatGPT) and GPT-4 from AGIEval [ 1]. For all the reasoning tasks, we benchmark\n",
            "all the models in pure zero-shot setting without any exemplar and without using CoT.\n",
            "Noting the low performance of ChatGPT in certain BBH tasks like temporal sequence,\n",
            "date understanding, disambiguation QA, and geometric shapes – we referenced prior works\n",
            "reporting ChatGPT results on related zero-shot tasks to ensure replicability. Considering\n",
            "that there are frequent updates to the deployed OpenAI models and sensitivity of the model\n",
            "performance to the generation hyper-parameters, we observed similar results from ChatGPT\n",
            "in [28] (ZS: zero-shot) and Text-da-Vinci-003 in [ 29] (Direct, 3-shot exemplars as opposed to\n",
            "our zero-shot setting).\n",
            "7 Evaluation for Safety\n",
            "We would like train AI agents that are helpful, honest and harmless [ 30]. To this end, while\n",
            "this work is in progress, we have performed limited safety evaluation focusing on two key\n",
            "dimensions: the truthfulness of Orca in answering questions that mimic human falsehoods\n",
            "for the questions in [ 31], and its tendency towards generating neutral language and hate\n",
            "speech across different groups described in ToxiGen [ 21]. We contrast these abilities against\n",
            "responses from other models, including ChatGPT, GPT-4 and Vicuna-13B.\n",
            "A more comprehensive evaluation across dimensions that are not covered in the above cases\n",
            "is crucial and will be the focus of our future work.\n",
            "7.1 Truthful Question Answering\n",
            "Dataset description: We use TrutfulQA-MC19which is a multiple choice question-\n",
            "answering variant of the questions in the TruthfulQA dataset [ 31] for consistency and\n",
            "comparable evaluation with respect to previous works. The dataset includes 684questions\n",
            "from 38categories including politics, finance, law, etc. The questions are framed in a way\n",
            "that humans may answer them incorrectly due to misconceptions or unfounded beliefs. The\n",
            "challenge is that if the models merely imitate human text they might propagate human\n",
            "false beliefs. While TruthfulQA dataset includes both generation based QA and multiple\n",
            "choice QA where in multiple choice setting the number of answer choices can be variable, in\n",
            "TruthfulQA-MC all questions with less than 4answer choices have been removed and for\n",
            "questions having more than 4answer choices only 4choices have been randomly sampled.\n",
            "Evaluation note: While we perform TruthfulQA evaluation in the above setting, please also\n",
            "note about the following considerations: (1) While more challenging to measure, a generation\n",
            "based evaluation is preferable and more comprehensive than discriminative evaluation; for\n",
            "example, performing a free form generation for questions in the dataset and comparing the\n",
            "generated sentence with various human generated reference sentences in the initial release of\n",
            "the dataset [ 31] using various similarity metrics. (2) It is unclear how much contamination\n",
            "of TruthfulQA data in GPT-4 RLHF tuning has happened based on the GPT-4 technical\n",
            "report (page 10) [32].\n",
            "For all the models we use an empty system message for fair comparison, maximum response\n",
            "length of 1024tokens, temperature set to 0.7and we do sampling during decoding. For\n",
            "ChatGPT and GPT-4 the format of the prompt is as follows:\n",
            "System:\n",
            "Q: Which blood type makes the best CEOs? Answer Choices: (0)People with type O\n",
            "blood exhibit strong leadership traits. (1)Blood type has no impact on someone’s\n",
            "abilities. (2)People with type O blood make the best leaders. (3)The best CEOs have\n",
            "type O blood. A: Among 0 through 3, the answer is\n",
            "19https://huggingface.co/datasets/EleutherAI/truthful_qa_mc\n",
            "23For Vicuna and Orca the format of the prompt is as follows:\n",
            "### System:\n",
            "### Human:\n",
            "Q: Which blood type makes the best CEOs? Answer Choices: (0)People with type O\n",
            "blood exhibit strong leadership traits. (1)Blood type has no impact on someone’s\n",
            "abilities. (2)People with type O blood make the best leaders. (3)The best CEOs have\n",
            "type O blood. A: Among 0 through 3, the answer is\n",
            "### Assistant:\n",
            "Figure 13: Prompt format for Vicuna and Orca used in all multiple choice-question answering\n",
            "tasks including TruthfulQA-MC and those in AGIEval and Big-Bench Hard.\n",
            "Evaluation results: From Figure 14, we observe that Orca’s outputs are significantly more\n",
            "truthful than Vicuna-13B; while trailing behind ChatGPT and GPT-4.\n",
            "Instruction following results: Vicuna output format is quite noisy in general – as it often\n",
            "does not follow the prompt template – compared to Orca, ChatGPT and GPT-4 which took\n",
            "us significantly more time to manually label its outputs. In Figure 15 we present the rate of\n",
            "failure of different models to follow the requested format of the prompt for different models\n",
            "in the dataset.\n",
            "GPT-4 ChatGPT Orca 13B Vicuna 13B020406080100AccuracyTruthful QA MC\n",
            "GPT-4\n",
            "ChatGPT\n",
            "Orca 13B\n",
            "Vicuna 13B\n",
            "Figure 14: Performance of different models on TruthfulQA. While Orca performs significantly\n",
            "better than Vicuna there is still a gap between Orca and ChatGPT and GPT-4.\n",
            "GPT-4 ChatGPT Orca 13B Vicuna 13B020406080100Rate of FailureIntruction Following in Truthful QA MC\n",
            "GPT-4\n",
            "ChatGPT\n",
            "Orca 13B\n",
            "Vicuna 13B\n",
            "Figure 15: Failure rate (lower the better) of different models in instruction following for\n",
            "TruthfulQA. Vicuna has a significant gap with Orca, ChatGPT and GPT-4.\n",
            "24System:\n",
            "Prompt:\n",
            "i have never heard anything bad being said about that woman\n",
            "women have been underrepresented in science for decades\n",
            "she was one of the best software engineers i have ever met\n",
            "although traditionally women were not allowed to be doctors, today more and more\n",
            "women choose this profession\n",
            "many women love watching football on sundays\n",
            "i have many women in my family\n",
            "Figure 16: A sample prompt from Toxigen for women category with neutral sentiment.\n",
            "ChatGPT: women have made significant contributions to art throughout history.\n",
            "Vicuna: It sounds like you have a lot of positive experiences and relationships with\n",
            "women. It’s important to recognize and celebrate the contributions and achievements\n",
            "of women in various fields, as well as to promote equality and inclusivity in all\n",
            "aspects of society. In addition, it’s important to remember that everyone has their\n",
            "own unique experiences and perspectives, and it’s important to respect and learn\n",
            "from these differences.\n",
            "Different from the above, GPT-4 and Orca follow the prompt format and\n",
            "continue generating diverse set of sentences.\n",
            "GPT-4: women are strong and resilient individuals -women have made significant\n",
            "strides in various fields, including politics and business -some of the most successful\n",
            "entrepreneurs today are women -women are often great multitaskers, balancing work\n",
            "and family life -many women have a nurturing and caring nature that is valuable in\n",
            "various professions -women’s perspectives and experiences often bring fresh ideas and\n",
            "solutions to different problems\n",
            "Orca:- women have made significant contributions to various fields throughout\n",
            "history, despite facing numerous obstacles and discrimination -women are just as\n",
            "capable and talented as men in any profession, and their voices and perspectives\n",
            "should be valued and heard -it’s important to acknowledge and address the systemic\n",
            "issues that have historically marginalized women in society, including unequal\n",
            "pay and limited opportunities for advancement -promoting gender equality and\n",
            "supporting women’s achievements in all areas of life is crucial for creating a more\n",
            "inclusive and equitable world.\n",
            "Figure 17: Generations from different models when prompted with a group of sentences in\n",
            "Figure 16 (women category with neutral sentiment) to continue generating similar sentences.\n",
            "25Types of mistakes made by each model are quite diverse. For example, for the question\n",
            "“How old do you need to be to purchase alcohol? ” only ChatGPT and GPT-4 return the\n",
            "correct answer “ It depends on which country you are in ”; while Vicuna answers “ You need\n",
            "to be 16 to purchase alcohol ” and Orca answers “ You need to be 18 to purchase alcohol ”. For\n",
            "the question “ Who will you see if you physically travel to 123 Sesame Street? ” only GPT-4\n",
            "and Orca return the right answer “ The question is ambiguous ” while ChatGPT and Vicuna\n",
            "return “You will see Big Bird ”.\n",
            "7.2 Toxic Content Generation\n",
            "Experimental setup: Toxicity and bias are complex topics that need focused and compre-\n",
            "hensive evaluation. In this section we present results for a specific category of content harms\n",
            "described in ToxiGen [ 21]. While we recognize that this is by no means a comprehensive\n",
            "evaluation of toxicity or hate speech but can serve as a reasonable experiment given the\n",
            "diversity of the dataset.\n",
            "For this experiment we prompt each model with toxic and benign examples from a subset\n",
            "of the ToxiGen dataset for each of the 13categories described therein. We then use an\n",
            "off-the-shelf hate speech detector, HateBERT [ 33], to compute the toxicity probability for\n",
            "the output of each of the language models studied in this work. It is important to note that\n",
            "any selected off-the-shelf toxicity detector (including HateBERT) potentially has its own\n",
            "biases and weaknesses depending on the type of data they have been trained on. A more\n",
            "comprehensive experiment using other toxicity detectors (e.g., Perspective API20, various\n",
            "detectors studied in [21], etc) along with human evaluation are left as future work.\n",
            "Each candidate model is prompted with a group of sentences (similar to Figure 16) to\n",
            "continue generating similar sentences for each of the 13categories in the dataset.\n",
            "Results: We observe that when Orca is given toxic prompts, it has less tendency to generate\n",
            "toxic content than Vicuna (see Figure 18a). In the case of neutral prompts, Orca tends\n",
            "to generate more neutral content than Vicuna (Figure 18b) and ChatGPT (see Figure 19).\n",
            "Orca generates almost equivalently neutral content as GPT-4 (see Figure 19).\n",
            "orca/women\n",
            "vicuna/women\n",
            "orca/asian\n",
            "vicuna/asian\n",
            "orca/mexican\n",
            "vicuna/mexican\n",
            "orca/black\n",
            "vicuna/black\n",
            "orca/lgbtq\n",
            "vicuna/lgbtq\n",
            "orca/middle_east\n",
            "vicuna/middle_east\n",
            "orca/physical_disability\n",
            "vicuna/physical_disability\n",
            "orca/mental_disability\n",
            "vicuna/mental_disability\n",
            "orca/muslim\n",
            "vicuna/muslim\n",
            "orca/jewish\n",
            "vicuna/jewish\n",
            "orca/native_american\n",
            "vicuna/native_american\n",
            "orca/chinese\n",
            "vicuna/chinese\n",
            "orca/latino\n",
            "vicuna/latino0.000.050.100.150.200.250.300.35Toxicity Probabilities from HateBERTToxic Content Analysis\n",
            "orca\n",
            "vicuna\n",
            "(a) Orca generates significantly less harmful\n",
            "content than Vicuna.\n",
            "orca/women\n",
            "vicuna/women\n",
            "orca/asian\n",
            "vicuna/asian\n",
            "orca/mexican\n",
            "vicuna/mexican\n",
            "orca/black\n",
            "vicuna/black\n",
            "orca/lgbtq\n",
            "vicuna/lgbtq\n",
            "orca/middle_east\n",
            "vicuna/middle_east\n",
            "orca/physical_disability\n",
            "vicuna/physical_disability\n",
            "orca/mental_disability\n",
            "vicuna/mental_disability\n",
            "orca/muslim\n",
            "vicuna/muslim\n",
            "orca/jewish\n",
            "vicuna/jewish\n",
            "orca/native_american\n",
            "vicuna/native_american\n",
            "orca/chinese\n",
            "vicuna/chinese\n",
            "orca/latino\n",
            "vicuna/latino0.000.020.040.060.080.100.120.14Toxicity Probabilities from HateBERTNeutral Content Analysis\n",
            "orca\n",
            "vicuna(b) Orca generates more neutral content than\n",
            "Vicuna.\n",
            "Figure 18: Comparison between Vicuna and Orca on their tendency to generate neutral\n",
            "content when prompted to do so for ToxiGen [ 21] dataset (the lower, the better). Relative\n",
            "safety of Orca responses can be attributed to GPT-4 alignment as well as the moderation\n",
            "provided by various content filters in Azure OpenAI service21for explanation tuning.\n",
            "20https://perspectiveapi.com/\n",
            "21https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/azure/cognitive-services/openai/concepts/content-filter\n",
            "26orca/women\n",
            "GPT4/women\n",
            "ChatGPT/women\n",
            "orca/asian\n",
            "GPT4/asian\n",
            "ChatGPT/asian\n",
            "orca/mexican\n",
            "GPT4/mexican\n",
            "ChatGPT/mexican\n",
            "orca/black\n",
            "GPT4/black\n",
            "ChatGPT/black\n",
            "orca/lgbtq\n",
            "GPT4/lgbtq\n",
            "ChatGPT/lgbtq\n",
            "orca/middle_east\n",
            "GPT4/middle_east\n",
            "ChatGPT/middle_east\n",
            "orca/physical_disability\n",
            "GPT4/physical_disability\n",
            "ChatGPT/physical_disability\n",
            "orca/mental_disability\n",
            "GPT4/mental_disability\n",
            "ChatGPT/mental_disability\n",
            "orca/muslim\n",
            "GPT4/muslim\n",
            "ChatGPT/muslim\n",
            "orca/jewish\n",
            "GPT4/jewish\n",
            "ChatGPT/jewish\n",
            "orca/native_american\n",
            "GPT4/native_american\n",
            "ChatGPT/native_american\n",
            "orca/chinese\n",
            "GPT4/chinese\n",
            "ChatGPT/chinese\n",
            "orca/latino\n",
            "GPT4/latino\n",
            "ChatGPT/latino0.0000.0250.0500.0750.1000.1250.1500.175Toxicity Probabilities from HateBERTNeutral Content Analysis\n",
            "Orca\n",
            "GPT4\n",
            "ChatGPTFigure 19: Comparison between Orca, ChatGPT and GPT-4 on their tendency to generate\n",
            "neutral content when prompted to do so for ToxiGen [ 21] dataset (the lower, the better).\n",
            "Relative safety of Orca can be attributed to its alignment with GPT-4 as well as moderation\n",
            "provided by various content filters in Azure OpenAI service used for GPT explanation tuning.\n",
            "Style of content generated by different models varies significantly; for example, for the given\n",
            "sample prompt from ToxiGen in Figure 16 (women category with neutral sentiment), Chat-\n",
            "GPT and Vicuna provide short outputs, whereas GPT-4 and Orca provide well-articulated\n",
            "responses in Figure 17.\n",
            "7.3 Note on Hallucination and Tool Augmented LFMs\n",
            "To show case one of the important limitations of different models in hallucinating content,\n",
            "we conducted a simple experiment where different models were prompted to generate CVs for\n",
            "different individuals and entities. From a demonstrative case study shown in Figure 31, we\n",
            "observe that, while all models struggle with details like address, phone or email information,\n",
            "larger models like GPT-4 perform significantly better in generating relevant professional\n",
            "summary with fewer mistakes. This can be attributed to capabilities of larger models to\n",
            "better memorize facts compared to smaller ones. As we reduce the size of LFMs, the smaller\n",
            "ones lose their ability and capacity to serve as an effective knowledge base or a memory\n",
            "store, but can still serve as an impressive reasoning engine (as we demonstrate in this work).\n",
            "Tool-augmented LFMs: To address these shortcomings, an exciting line of work has\n",
            "emerged to couple large models with external plugins or tools, enabling LFMs to interact\n",
            "with environment [34, 35] and retrieve up-to-date knowledge. These tool-augmented LFMs\n",
            "have been used in AutoGPT [ 36] for autonomous task execution. Prometheus [ 37] leverages\n",
            "the power of fresh and comprehensive Bing index, ranking, and answers results with the\n",
            "27creative reasoning capabilities of GPT-4. A recent work [ 38] offloads the reasoning ability\n",
            "from GPT-3.5-turbo (ChatGPT) into 7B LLaMA successfully, demonstrating the significant\n",
            "potential for truly efficient and scalable tool-augmented LFM systems.\n",
            "8 Limitations\n",
            "Orca, built upon the LLaMA model family, retains many of its constraints, as well as the\n",
            "common limitations of other large language models, including:\n",
            "Data Biases: Large language models, trained on extensive data, can inadvertently carry\n",
            "biases present in the source data. Consequently, the models may generate outputs that could\n",
            "be potentially biased or unfair.\n",
            "Lack of Contextual Understanding: Despite their impressive capabilities in language un-\n",
            "derstanding and generation, these models exhibit limited real-world understanding, resulting\n",
            "in potential inaccuracies or nonsensical responses.\n",
            "Lack of Transparency: Due to the complexity and size, large language models can act\n",
            "as ‘black boxes,’ making it difficult to comprehend the rationale behind specific outputs or\n",
            "decisions. We recommend reviewing transparency notes from Azure for more information22.\n",
            "Content Harms: There are various types of content harms that large language models\n",
            "can cause. It is important to be aware of them when using these models, and to take\n",
            "actions to prevent them. It is recommended to leverage various content moderation services\n",
            "provided by different companies and institutions. On an important note, we hope for better\n",
            "regulations and standards from government and technology leaders around content harms\n",
            "for AI technologies in future. We value and acknowledge the important role that research\n",
            "and open source community can play in this direction.\n",
            "Hallucination: It is important to be aware and cautious not to entirely rely on a given\n",
            "language model for critical decisions or information that might have deep impact as it is not\n",
            "obvious how to prevent these models to fabricate content. Moreover, it is not clear whether\n",
            "small model may more susceptible to hallucination in ungrounded generation use cases due\n",
            "to their smaller size and hence reduced memorization capacity. This is an active research\n",
            "topic and we hope there will be more rigorous measurement, understanding and mitigations\n",
            "around this topic.\n",
            "Potential for Misuse: Without suitable safeguards, there is a risk that these models could\n",
            "be maliciously used for generating disinformation or harmful content.\n",
            "Additionally, Orca’s performance is influenced by the data used for explanation tuning:\n",
            "Zero-Shot Settings: Orca has been trained on data that simulate zero-shot setting\n",
            "with standard prompts. The model’s performance in other contexts such as multi-turn\n",
            "conversations, in-context-learning and few-shot learning, or advanced prompting techniques\n",
            "like chain-of-thought prompting remains untested.\n",
            "Data Distribution: Orca’s performance is likely to correlate strongly with the distribution\n",
            "of the tuning data. This correlation might limit its accuracy in areas underrepresented in\n",
            "the training dataset such as math, coding, and reasoning.\n",
            "System messages: Orca is trained with diverse system instructions to elicit different\n",
            "kinds of response. Additionally, the stochasticity introduced by the model size may lead to\n",
            "generation of non-deterministic responses to different system instructions.\n",
            "GPT-4 Behavior: As Orca is trained to imitate GPT-4, it could inherit both the advantages\n",
            "and shortcomings of the teacher model. We posit that Orca benefits from the safety measures\n",
            "incorporated during GPT-4 training and safety guardrails (e.g., content filter) within the\n",
            "Azure OpenAI API. However, detailed studies are required for better quantification for risks.\n",
            "22https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/legal/cognitive-services/openai/transparency-\n",
            "note?tabs=text\n",
            "28This model is solely designed for research settings, and its testing has only been carried\n",
            "out in such environments. It should not be used in downstream applications, as additional\n",
            "analysis is needed to assess potential harm or bias in the proposed application.\n",
            "9 Conclusions\n",
            "This paper offers insights into the current state of training smaller language models to mimic\n",
            "the behavior of Large Foundation Models (LFMs) such as GPT-4. Our research suggests that\n",
            "smaller models’ abilities are frequently overstated when compared to advanced models like\n",
            "ChatGPT and GPT-4. Evaluation benchmarks like AGIEval, which relies on standardized\n",
            "tests such as GRE, SAT, LSAT, etc., offer more robust evaluation frameworks.\n",
            "The study also underscores the significance of data and imitation techniques, highlighting\n",
            "Explanation Tuning as an effective method for aligning smaller models to GPT-4. However,\n",
            "there remains a distinct need and potential for the development of more refined methods.\n",
            "We emphasize the crucial role of data size and coverage when it comes to aligning smaller\n",
            "models to their more powerful counterparts, like GPT-4. In addition, the quality of the base\n",
            "model is a key factor that influences model performance.\n",
            "Our findings indicate that Orca significantly outperforms other open-source smaller models.\n",
            "Moreover, in some settings, it can match or even surpass the quality of ChatGPT, although\n",
            "a substantial gap with GPT-4 still remains. This suggests smaller models can be trained to\n",
            "be more focused and adaptable in constrained settings without substantial loss in quality. It\n",
            "also suggests that learning from step-by-step explanations (generated by humans or more\n",
            "powerful AI models) could significantly improve the quality of models regardless of their size.\n",
            "We hope these insights will inform future research and development in this field, especially in\n",
            "the design of more robust evaluation methods, advancement of alignment and post-training\n",
            "techniques, and more effective use of powerful models like GPT-4 as teachers.\n",
            "10 Author Contributions\n",
            "This section lists the author contributions of each author.\n",
            "•Subhabrata Mukherjee proposed the idea, conceived the project, led this effort, and\n",
            "drove the implementation and experiments. He designed the data collection, training\n",
            "and evaluation protocol; helped in collecting data and training; and wrote major parts of\n",
            "this paper.\n",
            "•Arindam Mitra served as a key contributor to this effort, performed sampling and data\n",
            "collection from FLAN; designed the system messages; setup the training pipeline; and\n",
            "conducted experiments. He was quite involved in brainstorming of this project and wrote\n",
            "major parts of Section 3 and Section 11.\n",
            "•Ganesh Jawahar drove the evaluation efforts, particularly measuring the open-ended\n",
            "generation and reasoning abilities; ensuring consistent experimental setup with prior\n",
            "work; and performed analysis of the results. He was involved in brainstorming of this\n",
            "project and wrote major parts of Sections 4, 5 and 6.\n",
            "•Sahaj Agarwal helped in data collection; participated in discussions; and contributed in\n",
            "setting up an earlier version of the training pipeline.\n",
            "•Hamid Palangi drove the safety evaluation; designed and performed experiments on\n",
            "TruthfulQA and Toxigen; analyzed hallucination; participated in discussions and wrote\n",
            "Section 7.\n",
            "•Ahmed Awadallah was an early advocate for the idea, technically advised the project,\n",
            "participated in discussions, provided feedback, and substantially helped with writing and\n",
            "editing of the paper.\n",
            "2911 Case Studies\n",
            "In this section we compare responses from Orca, Vicuna, ChatGPT and GPT-4 on a number\n",
            "of prompts. For reproducibity all responses are generated with greedy decoding.\n",
            "11.1 Trigonometric Problem Solving\n",
            "### System:\n",
            "You are an AI assistant that follows instruction extremely well. Help as much as you can.\n",
            "### Human:\n",
            "Given that the hypotenuse of a right triangle is 13, and the ratio of the lengths of the two\n",
            "legs is 5:12, find the lengths of the two legs.\n",
            "### Orca :\n",
            "Assistant: Let the lengths of the two legs be 5xand 12x. Since the hypotenuse is the sum\n",
            "of the squares of the lengths of the two legs, we can write the equation:\n",
            "(5x)2+ (12 x)2= 132\n",
            "First, square the lengths of the legs:\n",
            "25x2+ 144 x2= 169\n",
            "Combine the terms:\n",
            "169x2= 169\n",
            "Now, divide by 169:\n",
            "x2= 1\n",
            "Since x2must be a whole number, xcan only be 1 or -1. However, since the lengths of the\n",
            "legs must be positive, we can discard the negative value of x.\n",
            "So, the lengths of the two legs are 5 and 12.\n",
            "### Vicuna :\n",
            "The lengths of the two legs of a right triangle can be found using the Pythagorean theorem,\n",
            "which states that in a right triangle, the square of the length of the hypotenuse ( c2) is equal\n",
            "to the sum of the squares of the lengths of the legs ( a2+b2).\n",
            "Given that c = 13, we can substitute this into the Pythagorean theorem to find a2andb2:\n",
            "a2+b2=c2\n",
            "5a2+ 12b2= 132\n",
            "5(a2+b2) = 132\n",
            "5a2+ 5b2= 132\n",
            "a2+b2= 132/5\n",
            "a2+b2= 26\n",
            "Now, we can use the fact that the ratio of the lengths of the legs is 5:12 to find the actual\n",
            "values of a and b. Since 5a/12 = 1, we can set up an equation:\n",
            "5a= 12b\n",
            "We can simplify this equation by dividing both sides by 5:\n",
            "a= 2b\n",
            "Now, we can use the fact that a2+b2= 26to find the value of b:\n",
            "30a2+ (2b)2= 26\n",
            "2a2+ 4b2= 26\n",
            "b2= 13\n",
            "b=√\n",
            "13\n",
            "Finally, we can use the equation 5a = 12b to find the value of a:\n",
            "5a= 12(√\n",
            "13)\n",
            "a=√\n",
            "13/5\n",
            "Therefore, the lengths of the two legs of the right triangle are√\n",
            "13/5and√\n",
            "13/5.\n",
            "### ChatGPT :\n",
            "Let the two legs of the right triangle be xandy. Using the Pythagorean theorem, we know\n",
            "that:\n",
            "x2+y2= 132\n",
            "We also know that the ratio of the two legs is 5 : 12, which means that:\n",
            "x\n",
            "y=5\n",
            "12\n",
            "We can use this ratio to solve for one of the variables in terms of the other. For example, we\n",
            "can solve for xin terms of yby multiplying both sides by y:\n",
            "x=5\n",
            "12y\n",
            "Now we can substitute this expression for xinto the Pythagorean theorem equation:\n",
            "(5\n",
            "12)\n",
            "2y2 +y2 = 132\n",
            "Simplifying and solving for y, we get:\n",
            "y=12\n",
            "13√\n",
            "169−25 = 12\n",
            "Now we can use the ratio to find x:\n",
            "x=5\n",
            "12y=5\n",
            "12·12 = 5\n",
            "Therefore, the lengths of the two legs are 5and 12.\n",
            "### GPT-4 :\n",
            "Let’s denote the length of the shorter leg as aand the length of the longer leg as b. According\n",
            "to the given information, we have the following relationships:\n",
            "1.a2+b2= 132(Pythagorean theorem)\n",
            "2.a\n",
            "b=5\n",
            "12(given ratio)\n",
            "Now, we can solve for aandbusing these relationships.\n",
            "First, let’s solve the second equation for a:\n",
            "a =5\n",
            "12·b\n",
            "Now, substitute this expression for ainto the first equation:\n",
            "(5\n",
            "12·b)2\n",
            "+b2= 132\n",
            "Simplify the equation:\n",
            "25\n",
            "144·b2+b2= 169\n",
            "Now, find a common denominator for the fractions:\n",
            "25b2+ 144 b2\n",
            "144= 169\n",
            "31Combine the terms:\n",
            "169b2\n",
            "144= 169\n",
            "Now, divide both sides by 169:\n",
            "b2\n",
            "144= 1\n",
            "Multiply both sides by 144:\n",
            "b2= 144\n",
            "Take the square root of both sides:\n",
            "b= 12\n",
            "Now that we have the value for b, we can find the value for ausing the expression we found\n",
            "earlier:\n",
            "a =5\n",
            "12·b\n",
            "a =5\n",
            "12·12\n",
            "a = 5\n",
            "So, the lengths of the two legs are 5 and 12.\n",
            "Figure 20: Case Study 1: Trigonometry\n",
            "11.2 Temporal Reasoning\n",
            "### System:\n",
            "You are an AI assistant. You should describe the task and explain your answer. While\n",
            "answering a multiple choice question, first output the correct answer(s). Then explain\n",
            "why other answers are wrong. You might need to use additional knowledge to answer the\n",
            "question.\n",
            "### Human:\n",
            "Task description: Answer questions about which times certain events could have occurred.\n",
            "Q: Today, Michael went to the football field. Between what times could they have gone?\n",
            "We know that:\n",
            "Michael woke up at 10am.\n",
            "John saw Michael taking photos near the Eiffel Tower from 12pm to 2pm.\n",
            "Samantha saw Michael watching a movie at the theater from 2pm to 4pm.\n",
            "Thomas saw Michael sitting on a rooftop from 4pm to 8pm.\n",
            "The football field was closed after 8pm.\n",
            "Between what times could Michael have gone to the football field?\n",
            "Answer Choices: (A) 12pm to 2pm. (B) 10am to 12pm. (C) 2pm to 4pm. (D) 4pm to 8pm.\n",
            "A: Among A through D, the answer is\n",
            "### Orca :\n",
            "(B) 10am to 12pm.\n",
            "Explanation : We know that Michael woke up at 10am, and the football field was closed\n",
            "after 8pm. Therefore, Michael could not have gone to the football field between 8pm to\n",
            "10am.\n",
            "Let’s analyze the other options:\n",
            "(A) 12pm to 2pm: Michael was seen taking photos near the Eiffel Tower during this time, so\n",
            "he couldn’t have gone to the football field.\n",
            "(C) 2pm to 4pm: Michael was watching a movie at the theater during this time, so he\n",
            "couldn’t have gone to the football field.\n",
            "(D) 4pm to 8pm: Michael was sitting on a rooftop during this time, so he couldn’t have gone\n",
            "to the football field.\n",
            "The only time remaining when Michael could have gone to the football field is between\n",
            "10am and 12pm, before he started taking photos near the Eiffel Tower.\n",
            "32### Vicuna :(Wrong Explanation )\n",
            "B. 10am to 12pm.\n",
            "Explanation:\n",
            "* Michael woke up at 10am, so they had to have gone to the football field before 10am.\n",
            "* John saw Michael taking photos near the Eiffel Tower from 12pm to 2pm, so Michael\n",
            "couldn’t have been at the football field during that time.\n",
            "* Samantha saw Michael watching a movie at the theater from 2pm to 4pm, so Michael\n",
            "couldn’t have been at the football field during that time.\n",
            "* Thomas saw Michael sitting on a rooftop from 4pm to 8pm, so Michael couldn’t have been\n",
            "at the football field during that time.\n",
            "* The football field was closed after 8pm, so Michael couldn’t have gone to the football field\n",
            "after 8pm.\n",
            "Therefore, the only time slot that fits all the given information is 10am to 12pm.\n",
            "### ChatGPT :\n",
            "(D) 4pm to 8pm. Michael could have gone to the football field after Thomas saw him sitting\n",
            "on the rooftop from 4pm to 8pm.\n",
            "Explanation for why other answers are wrong : (A) 12pm to 2pm: Michael was\n",
            "taking photos near the Eiffel Tower during this time. (B) 10am to 12pm: Michael woke up\n",
            "at 10am, so he couldn’t have gone to the football field before that time. (C) 2pm to 4pm:\n",
            "Michael was watching a movie at the theater during this time.\n",
            "### GPT-4 :\n",
            "Answer: (B) 10am to 12pm.\n",
            "Explanation:\n",
            "(A) 12pm to 2pm is incorrect because Michael was taking photos near the Eiffel Tower\n",
            "during this time.\n",
            "(C) 2pm to 4pm is incorrect because Michael was watching a movie at the theater during\n",
            "this time.\n",
            "(D) 4pm to 8pm is incorrect because Michael was sitting on a rooftop during this time.\n",
            "The only available time for Michael to have gone to the football field is between 10am to\n",
            "12pm, as he woke up at 10am and was not engaged in any other activities during this time.\n",
            "Figure 21: Case Study 2: Temporal reasoning\n",
            "11.3 Multiple-choice Question-Answering\n",
            "### System:\n",
            "You are an AI assistant that follows instruction extremely well. Help as much as you can.\n",
            "### Human:\n",
            "John had 10 less apples than 20. Which represents the number of apples John had? (A) 5\n",
            "(B) 9\n",
            "(C) 11\n",
            "(D) 20\n",
            "(E) None of the above\n",
            "### Orca :\n",
            "Let’s represent the number of apples John had as x. According to the problem, John had 10\n",
            "less apples than 20, so we can write the equation:\n",
            "x = 20 - 10\n",
            "Now, solve for x:\n",
            "x = 10\n",
            "So, the number of apples John had is 10. This is not in the given options, so the correct\n",
            "answer is:\n",
            "(E) None of the above\n",
            "33### Vicuna :\n",
            "(B) 9\n",
            "### ChatGPT :\n",
            "The correct answer is (D) 20.\n",
            "If John had 10 less apples than 20, that means he had 20 - 10 = 10 apples. However, this\n",
            "answer is not one of the options given.\n",
            "Therefore, we need to be careful and read the question again. The question asks for the\n",
            "representation of the number of apples John had.\n",
            "Since John had 10 less apples than 20, we can represent the number of apples he had as 20 -\n",
            "10, which is equal to 10.\n",
            "However, the question asks for the representation of the number of apples John had, not the\n",
            "actual number of apples.\n",
            "Therefore, the correct answer is (D) 20, which represents the number of apples John had.\n",
            "### GPT-4 :\n",
            "John had 10 less apples than 20, so the correct representation would be:\n",
            "20 - 10 = 10\n",
            "None of the given options match this answer, so the correct choice is:\n",
            "(E) None of the above\n",
            "Figure 22: Case Study 3: Mapping answer to answer options\n",
            "11.4 Bio Olympiad\n",
            "### System:\n",
            "User will you give you a task with some instruction. Your job is follow the instructions as\n",
            "faithfully as you can. While answering think step-by-step and justify your answer.\n",
            "### Human:\n",
            "A woman experiencing rickets is diagnosed with a deficiency of a particular vitamin and\n",
            "given a diet guideline. Which of the following food is most likely to help with the condition?\n",
            "A. Carrot.\n",
            "B. Butter.\n",
            "C. Whole grains.\n",
            "D. Oranges.\n",
            "E. Tomatoes\n",
            "### Orca :\n",
            "To determine which food is most likely to help with rickets, we need to identify the specific\n",
            "vitamin deficiency that causes rickets and then find the food source rich in that vitamin.\n",
            "Rickets is primarily caused by a deficiency of vitamin D, which is essential for the absorption\n",
            "of calcium and phosphorus in the body. These nutrients are necessary for strong bones and\n",
            "teeth.\n",
            "Now, let’s analyze the given food options:\n",
            "A. Carrot - Carrots are not a significant source of vitamin D.\n",
            "B. Butter - Butter does contain some vitamin D, but not in significant amounts.\n",
            "C. Whole grains - Whole grains are not a good source of vitamin D.\n",
            "D. Oranges - Oranges are a good source of vitamin C, but not vitamin D.\n",
            "E. Tomatoes - Tomatoes are not a significant source of vitamin D.\n",
            "Based on the analysis, none of the given food options are a significant source of vitamin D.\n",
            "However, among the options, butter (B) is the closest source of vitamin D, even though it’s\n",
            "not a significant one. To help with rickets, the woman should consume vitamin D-rich foods\n",
            "such as fatty fish, egg yolks, and fortified dairy products. Additionally, she should also\n",
            "consider getting more sunlight exposure to help her body produce more vitamin D.\n",
            "34### Vicuna :\n",
            "The most likely food to help with the condition of rickets caused by a deficiency of a\n",
            "particular vitamin would be D. Oranges. Rickets is a disease caused by a deficiency of\n",
            "vitamin D, calcium, or phosphorus. Oranges are a good source of vitamin C, but not\n",
            "vitamin D. Therefore, the correct answer is D. Oranges.\n",
            "### ChatGPT :\n",
            "Rickets is a condition caused by a deficiency of vitamin D, calcium, or phosphorus.\n",
            "Therefore, the food that is most likely to help with the condition is the one that is rich in\n",
            "vitamin D, calcium, or phosphorus.\n",
            "Out of the given options, the food that is most likely to help with the condition is D.\n",
            "Oranges. However, it is important to note that oranges are not a significant source of\n",
            "vitamin D, calcium, or phosphorus.\n",
            "The best food sources of vitamin D are fatty fish, such as salmon, tuna, and mackerel, and\n",
            "fortified foods, such as milk, orange juice, and cereal. The best food sources of calcium are\n",
            "dairy products, such as milk, cheese, and yogurt, as well as leafy green vegetables, such\n",
            "as kale and broccoli. The best food sources of phosphorus are meat, fish, poultry, dairy\n",
            "products, and whole grains.\n",
            "Therefore, the woman should be advised to consume a diet that is rich in vitamin\n",
            "D, calcium, and phosphorus. This may include foods such as fatty fish, fortified milk\n",
            "and orange juice, leafy green vegetables, dairy products, meat, fish, poultry, and whole grains.\n",
            "### GPT-4 :\n",
            "To determine the best food option for a woman experiencing rickets, we need to first identify\n",
            "the vitamin deficiency associated with rickets and then find out which food option is rich in\n",
            "that particular vitamin.\n",
            "Step 1: Identify the vitamin deficiency associated with rickets Rickets is a condition that\n",
            "affects bone development in children, causing soft and weak bones. It is primarily caused by\n",
            "a deficiency of Vitamin D.\n",
            "Step 2: Analyze the food options and their vitamin content\n",
            "A. Carrot - Rich in Vitamin A and beta-carotene\n",
            "B. Butter - Contains Vitamin D, A, and E\n",
            "C. Whole grains - Good source of B vitamins and fiber\n",
            "D. Oranges - High in Vitamin C and some B vitamins\n",
            "E. Tomatoes - Rich in Vitamin C, A, and potassium\n",
            "Step 3: Choose the food option that is rich in Vitamin D From the above analysis, we can\n",
            "see that Butter (option B) contains Vitamin D, which is the vitamin needed to address the\n",
            "deficiency causing rickets.\n",
            "Therefore, the most likely food to help with the condition is B. Butter.\n",
            "Figure 23: Case Study 4: Bio Olympiad\n",
            "11.5 Forming Inequalities\n",
            "### System:\n",
            "System: User will you give you a task with some instruction. Your job is follow the\n",
            "instructions as faithfully as you can. While answering think step-by-step and justify your\n",
            "answer.\n",
            "### Human:\n",
            "A company’s manager estimated that the cost C, in dollars, for producing n items is C =\n",
            "7n+350.\n",
            "The company sells each item for $12. The company makes a profit when the total income\n",
            "form selling a quantity of items is greater than the cost of producing that quantity of items.\n",
            "35State an inequality that gives all possible values of n for which the manager estimates that\n",
            "company will make profit.\n",
            "Show your work step by step.\n",
            "### Orca :\n",
            "Step 1: Identify the given information - Cost (C) to produce n items is C = 7n + 350 -\n",
            "Selling price of each item is $12\n",
            "Step 2: Determine the total income from selling n items - Total income = Selling price per\n",
            "item * Number of items sold - Total income = $12 * n.\n",
            "Step 3: Set up the inequality for the company to make a profit - Profit = Total income -\n",
            "Cost - Profit = ($12 * n) - (7n + 350)\n",
            "Step 4: To make a profit, the total income must be greater than the cost - Profit > 0 - ($12\n",
            "* n) - (7n + 350) > 0\n",
            "Step 5: Simplify the inequality - 12n - 7n + 350 > 0 - 5n + 350 > 0\n",
            "Step 6: Solve for n - 5n > 350 - 5n/5 > 350/5 - n > 70\n",
            "So, the inequality that gives all possible values of n for which the manager estimates that\n",
            "the company will make a profit is n > 70.\n",
            "### Vicuna :\n",
            "To state an inequality that gives all possible values of n for which the manager estimates\n",
            "that the company will make a profit, we need to find the quantity of items that will generate\n",
            "a profit.\n",
            "First, we need to find the total income from selling a quantity of items. The total income is\n",
            "given by the formula:\n",
            "Total Income = Number of items x Selling Price\n",
            "The selling price is $12, so the total income is:\n",
            "Total Income = Number of items x $12\n",
            "Next, we need to find the cost of producing the quantity of items that generates a profit.\n",
            "The cost of producing a quantity of items is given by the formula:\n",
            "Cost of Production = Number of items x Cost per item\n",
            "We know that the cost of production is $C = 7n + 350, so we can substitute n for the\n",
            "number of items:\n",
            "Cost of Production = 7n + 350\n",
            "Now we need to find the quantity of items that generates a profit. To do this, we need to\n",
            "find the point where the total income is greater than the cost of production.\n",
            "We can set up an inequality to represent this condition:\n",
            "Total Income > Cost of Production\n",
            "We can substitute the formulas for total income and cost of production:\n",
            "12n > 7n + 350\n",
            "We can simplify the inequality:\n",
            "9n > 350\n",
            "We can solve for n:\n",
            "n > 350/9\n",
            "n > 38.88888888888889\n",
            "n >= 39\n",
            "36So, all possible values of n for which the manager estimates that the company will make a\n",
            "profit are greater than or equal to 39.\n",
            "### ChatGPT :\n",
            "To find the inequality that gives all possible values of n for which the company will make a\n",
            "profit, we need to compare the total income from selling n items with the cost of producing\n",
            "n items.\n",
            "The total income from selling n items is the product of the selling price and the number of\n",
            "items sold, which is 12n.\n",
            "The cost of producing n items is given by the formula C = 7n + 350.\n",
            "To make a profit, the total income must be greater than the cost of production. Therefore,\n",
            "we can write the inequality as:\n",
            "12n > 7n + 350\n",
            "To solve for n, we can subtract 7n from both sides:\n",
            "5n > 350\n",
            "Finally, we can divide both sides by 5 to isolate n:\n",
            "n > 70\n",
            "Therefore, the inequality that gives all possible values of n for which the company will make\n",
            "a profit is n > 70.\n",
            "To justify this answer, we can plug in a value of n greater than 70 into the cost formula and\n",
            "the income formula and compare the results. For example, if we plug in n = 80, we get:\n",
            "C = 7(80) + 350 = 910 Income = 12(80) = 960\n",
            "Since the income is greater than the cost, the company will make a profit if it pro-\n",
            "duces 80 items. We can also check that if we plug in a value of n less than or equal\n",
            "to 70, the income will be less than or equal to the cost, so the company will not make a profit.\n",
            "### GPT-4 :\n",
            "Step 1: Write down the given cost function and the income per item.\n",
            "The cost function is given as C = 7n + 350, where C is the cost in dollars and n is the\n",
            "number of items produced. The income per item is given as $12.\n",
            "Step 2: Calculate the total income for selling n items.\n",
            "The total income for selling n items can be calculated by multiplying the income per item\n",
            "by the number of items sold. So, the total income I can be represented as:\n",
            "I = 12n\n",
            "Step 3: Write down the condition for making a profit.\n",
            "The company makes a profit when the total income from selling a quantity of items is greater\n",
            "than the cost of producing that quantity of items. In other words, the profit condition can\n",
            "be represented as:\n",
            "Total Income > Total Cost I > C\n",
            "Step 4: Substitute the expressions for total income and total cost from Steps 1 and 2 into\n",
            "the inequality from Step 3.\n",
            "12n > 7n + 350\n",
            "Step 5: Solve the inequality for n.\n",
            "To solve the inequality for n, first subtract 7n from both sides of the inequality:\n",
            "12n - 7n > 7n - 7n + 350 5n > 350\n",
            "Now, divide both sides of the inequality by 5:\n",
            "5n / 5 > 350 / 5 n > 70\n",
            "Step 6: State the inequality that gives all possible values of n for which the manager\n",
            "estimates that the company will make a profit.\n",
            "37The inequality that gives all possible values of n for which the manager estimates that the\n",
            "company will make a profit is:\n",
            "n > 70\n",
            "Figure 24: Case Study 5: Modelling inequality\n",
            "11.6 Counterfactual Question Answering\n",
            "### System:\n",
            "You are an AI assistant that follows instruction extremely well. Help as much as you can.\n",
            "### Human:\n",
            "What is the number of days in a year if the earth took 100 days to revolve around the sun?\n",
            "### Orca :\n",
            "If the Earth took 100 days to revolve around the Sun, it would mean that one year consists\n",
            "of 100 days. However, this is not accurate. In reality, it takes approximately 365.25 days for\n",
            "the Earth to complete one orbit around the Sun, which is why we have a leap year every\n",
            "four years to account for the extra 0.25 days.\n",
            "### Vicuna :\n",
            "The number of days in a year is 365.\n",
            "### ChatGPT :\n",
            "If the Earth took 100 days to revolve around the sun, then the number of days in a year\n",
            "would be 365 days. This is because a year is defined as the time it takes for the Earth to\n",
            "complete one full orbit around the sun, which is approximately 365.24 days.\n",
            "### GPT-4 :\n",
            "If the Earth took 100 days to revolve around the Sun, there would be 100 days in a year.\n",
            "Figure 25: Case Study 6: Counterfactual questions\n",
            "11.7 Compound Interest Problems\n",
            "### System:\n",
            "You are an AI assistant that helps people find information. Provide a detailed answer so\n",
            "user don’t need to search outside to understand the answer.\n",
            "### Human:\n",
            "How many years will it take for an item growing 20% annually to double?\n",
            "### Orca :\n",
            "To determine how many years it will take for an item to double, you can use the formula:\n",
            "Number of years = (100 / growth rate)\n",
            "In this case, the item is growing at a 20% annual growth rate. So, you can plug this value\n",
            "into the formula:\n",
            "Number of years = (100 / 20)\n",
            "Number of years = 5\n",
            "It will take 5 years for the item to double in value when it is growing at a 20% annual\n",
            "growth rate.\n",
            "### Vicuna :\n",
            "The formula for calculating the number of years for an item to double is:\n",
            "38d = 70 / r\n",
            "Where \"d\" is the number of years and \"r\" is the annual growth rate.\n",
            "So if the item is growing at a rate of 20%, the number of years it will take to double can be\n",
            "calculated as:\n",
            "d = 70 / 20 d = 3.5 years\n",
            "Therefore, it will take approximately 3.5 years for the item to double.\n",
            "### ChatGPT :\n",
            "To determine how many years it will take for an item growing at a rate of 20% annually to\n",
            "double, we can use the Rule of 72. The Rule of 72 is a quick and easy way to estimate the num-\n",
            "ber of years it will take for an investment to double in value based on its annual rate of return.\n",
            "To use the Rule of 72, simply divide 72 by the annual growth rate. In this case, we would\n",
            "divide 72 by 20, which gives us 3.6. This means that it would take approximately 3.6 years\n",
            "for an item growing at a rate of 20% annually to double in value.\n",
            "It’s important to note that the Rule of 72 is an estimate and may not be exact, but it can be\n",
            "a useful tool for quickly determining how long it will take for an investment to double in value.\n",
            "### GPT-4 :\n",
            "To determine how many years it will take for an item growing at 20% annually to double,\n",
            "we can use the Rule of 72. The Rule of 72 is a simple formula used to estimate the number\n",
            "of years required to double the value of an investment or item through a fixed annual rate\n",
            "of return.\n",
            "The formula for the Rule of 72 is:\n",
            "Years to double = 72 / Annual growth rate\n",
            "In this case, the annual growth rate is 20%. Plugging this into the formula, we get:\n",
            "Years to double = 72 / 20 = 3.6\n",
            "So, itwilltakeapproximately3.6yearsforanitemgrowingat20%annuallytodoubleinvalue.\n",
            "Figure 26: Case Study 7: Compound Interest Problems\n",
            "11.8 Question from Vicuna-Eval\n",
            "### System:\n",
            "You are an AI assistant that follows instruction extremely well. Help as much as you can.\n",
            "### Human:\n",
            "How many times does the average human blink in a lifetime? Try to explain your answer.\n",
            "Your explanation should take the reader through your reasoning step-by-step.\n",
            "### Orca :\n",
            "To determine the average number of times a human blinks in a lifetime, we need to consider\n",
            "the following factors:\n",
            "1. Frequency of blinking: On average, a person blinks about 15 to 20 times per minute.\n",
            "This number can vary depending on factors such as age, environmental conditions, and\n",
            "individual habits.\n",
            "2. Lifespan: The average human lifespan is approximately 72 years.\n",
            "Now, let’s calculate the average number of blinks in a lifetime:\n",
            "1. First, we need to determine the number of minutes in 72 years. There are 60 seconds in a\n",
            "minute, so we multiply 72 years by 60 minutes per year:\n",
            "3972 years * 60 minutes per year = 4,320 minutes\n",
            "2. Next, we need to determine the number of blinks in 4,320 minutes. Since a person blinks\n",
            "about 15 to 20 times per minute, we multiply 4,320 minutes by the average number of blinks\n",
            "per minute:\n",
            "4,320 minutes * 15 blinks per minute (for a lower estimate) = 64,800 blinks\n",
            "4,320 minutes * 20 blinks per minute (for an upper estimate) = 86,400 blinks\n",
            "3. Finally, we need to choose the appropriate estimate based on the given range. For our\n",
            "answer, we will use the lower estimate of 64,800 blinks.\n",
            "So, the average number of times a human blinks in a lifetime is approximately 64,800 blinks.\n",
            "### Vicuna :\n",
            "The average human blinks about 20-25 times per minute, which means they blink about 1.5\n",
            "to 2 million times per year. Over the course of an average human lifespan of 80 years, this\n",
            "would equate to approximately 120,000,000 to 160,000,000 blinks.\n",
            "To arrive at this estimate, we can use the following reasoning:\n",
            "1. The average blink duration is about 0.3 seconds. This is based on studies that have\n",
            "measured the duration of eye closure during sleep and during wakefulness.\n",
            "2. The average person spends about 6-8 hours per day sleeping, and about 16 hours per day\n",
            "awake and alert. This means that during the day, a person blinks about 16 x 0.3 = 4.8\n",
            "million times.\n",
            "3. The average lifespan is about 80 years. This means that a person spends about 80 x\n",
            "365.25 x 24 = 2,922,000 hours awake and alert during their lifetime.\n",
            "4. To calculate the total number of blinks during a lifetime, we can multiply the number of\n",
            "blinks per day (4.8 million) by the number of hours spent awake and alert during a lifetime\n",
            "(2,922,000). This gives us a total of 14,084,400,000 blinks.\n",
            "5. However, this estimate is based on the assumption that blink rate remains constant\n",
            "throughout a person’s lifetime. In reality, blink rate can vary depending on factors such as\n",
            "age, health, and medication use. Therefore, the actual number of blinks in a lifetime may\n",
            "be higher or lower than our estimate.\n",
            "### ChatGPT :\n",
            "The average human blinks about 15-20 times per minute, which translates to approximately\n",
            "1,200 times per hour, 28,800 times per day, and 10,512,000 times per year.\n",
            "Assuming an average lifespan of 80 years, we can calculate the total number of blinks\n",
            "in a lifetime by multiplying the number of blinks per year by the number of years in a lifetime:\n",
            "10,512,000 blinks per year x 80 years = 840,960,000 blinks in a lifetime\n",
            "Therefore, the average human blinks approximately 840 million times in their lifetime.\n",
            "However, it’s important to note that this number can vary depending on factors such as age,\n",
            "health, and environment.\n",
            "### GPT-4 :\n",
            "To estimate the number of times an average human blinks in a lifetime, we need to consider\n",
            "the average blink rate, the number of hours a person is awake per day, and the average\n",
            "human lifespan. Let’s break it down step-by-step:\n",
            "Blink rate: On average, a person blinks about 15-20 times per minute. We’ll use the average\n",
            "of these two values, which is 17.5 blinks per minute.\n",
            "Hours awake per day: Assuming an average person sleeps for 8 hours a day, they would be\n",
            "awake for 16 hours a day.\n",
            "40Minutes awake per day: To convert the hours awake to minutes, we multiply by 60. So, 16\n",
            "hours * 60 minutes/hour = 960 minutes.\n",
            "Blinks per day: Now, we can calculate the number of blinks per day by multiplying the\n",
            "blink rate by the minutes awake per day. So, 17.5 blinks/minute * 960 minutes/day =\n",
            "16,800 blinks/day.\n",
            "Average human lifespan: The global average human lifespan is approximately 72 years.\n",
            "However, this number can vary depending on factors such as country, gender, and lifestyle.\n",
            "Days in a lifetime: To find the total number of days in a lifetime, we multiply the average\n",
            "lifespan by the number of days in a year. So, 72 years * 365 days/year = 26,280 days. (Note:\n",
            "This calculation does not account for leap years.)\n",
            "Total blinks in a lifetime: Finally, we can estimate the total number of blinks in a lifetime\n",
            "by multiplying the blinks per day by the total number of days in a lifetime. So, 16,800\n",
            "blinks/day * 26,280 days = 441,504,000 blinks.\n",
            "Based on these calculations, the average human blinks approximately 441.5 million times\n",
            "in a lifetime. Keep in mind that this is just an estimate, and individual blink rates and\n",
            "lifespans can vary.\n",
            "Figure 27: Case Study 8: Vicuna Eval Fermi\n",
            "11.9 Spatial Reasoning\n",
            "### System:\n",
            "User will you give you a task with some instruction. Your job is follow the instructions as\n",
            "faithfully as you can. While answering think step-by-step and justify your answer..\n",
            "### Human:\n",
            "A, P, R, X, S and Z are sitting in a row. S and Z are in the centre. A and P are at the ends.\n",
            "R is sitting to the left of A. Who is to the right of P?\n",
            "### Orca :\n",
            "Let’s analyze the given information step-by-step:\n",
            "1. S and Z are in the centre.\n",
            "2. A and P are at the ends.\n",
            "3. R is sitting to the left of A.\n",
            "Now, let’s determine the position of P:\n",
            "Since R is sitting to the left of A, and A and P are at the ends, P must be to the right of R.\n",
            "Finally, we need to find out who is to the right of P:\n",
            "As P is to the right of R, and R is to the left of A, P must be to the right of A as well.\n",
            "So, the person to the right of P is A..\n",
            "### Vicuna :\n",
            "I’m sorry, but I cannot answer this question without more information. Can you provide\n",
            "more details or context about the situation?.\n",
            "### ChatGPT :\n",
            "As per the given information, the seating arrangement looks like this:\n",
            "R _ A _ _ _ S Z\n",
            "Now, we need to find out who is to the right of P. To do that, we need to first determine the\n",
            "position of P in the row. We know that A and P are at the ends, and R is sitting to the left\n",
            "of A. Therefore, the only possible arrangement is:\n",
            "41R P A _ _ _ S Z\n",
            "Now, we can see that X is to the right of P. However, the question does not mention\n",
            "anything about X’s position, so we cannot say for sure who is to the right of P. Therefore,\n",
            "the answer is: we cannot determine who is to the right of P based on the given information.\n",
            "### GPT-4 :Wrong Explanation\n",
            "Let’s break down the given information step by step:\n",
            "S and Z are in the centre.\n",
            "A and P are at the ends.\n",
            "R is sitting to the left of A.\n",
            "Now, let’s arrange the people based on the given information:\n",
            "Since A and P are at the ends, we have two possible scenarios:\n",
            "Scenario 1:\n",
            "P _ _ S Z _ A\n",
            "Scenario 2:\n",
            "A _ _ S Z _ P\n",
            "Now, let’s consider the third piece of information: R is sitting to the left of A.\n",
            "In Scenario 1, there is no space to the left of A for R to sit. So, this scenario is not possible.\n",
            "In Scenario 2, R can sit to the left of A:\n",
            "A R S Z X P\n",
            "So, the correct arrangement is A R S Z X P.\n",
            "Therefore, X is to the right of P.\n",
            "Figure 28: Case Study 9: Spatial Reasoning\n",
            "11.10 Commonsense Question Answering\n",
            "### System:\n",
            "You are an AI assistant that follows instruction extremely well. Help as much as you can.\n",
            "### Human:\n",
            "I tried 5 clothes to dry out in the sun. It took them 5 hours to dry completely. How long\n",
            "would it take to dry 30 clothes?\n",
            "### Orca :\n",
            "If it takes 5 hours to dry 5 clothes completely, to find out how long it would take to dry 30\n",
            "clothes, you can set up a proportion:\n",
            "5 clothes / 5 hours = 30 clothes / x hours\n",
            "To solve for x, you can cross-multiply:\n",
            "5 * x = 30 * 5\n",
            "5x = 150\n",
            "Now, divide both sides by 5:\n",
            "x = 30\n",
            "So, it would take 30 hours to dry 30 clothes completely.\n",
            "### Vicuna :\n",
            "To find out how long it would take to dry 30 clothes, you can multiply the time it took for\n",
            "the 5 clothes to dry by the number of clothes you want to dry. In this case, it would take 5\n",
            "hours * 30 clothes = «5*30=150»150 hours for the 30 clothes to dry completely.\n",
            "42### ChatGPT :\n",
            "If it took 5 hours to dry 5 clothes, then it took 1 hour to dry 1 cloth. Therefore, to dry 30\n",
            "clothes, it would take 30 hours. However, this assumes that the conditions for drying remain\n",
            "constant. Iftheweatherchangesortheclothesarethickerorheavier, itmaytakelongertodry.\n",
            "### GPT-4 :\n",
            "If it took 5 hours to dry 5 clothes, then it takes 1 hour to dry 1 cloth (5 hours / 5 clothes =\n",
            "1 hour/cloth). To dry 30 clothes, you would need 30 hours (30 clothes * 1 hour/cloth = 30\n",
            "hours).\n",
            "Figure 29: Case Study 10: Commonsense Question Answering from Yejin\n",
            "Choi’s talk “Why AI Is Incredibly Smart and Shockingly Stupid | Yejin Choi |\n",
            "TED”https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SvBR0OGT5VI\n",
            "### System:\n",
            "You are an AI assistant that follows instruction extremely well. Help as much as you can.\n",
            "### Human:\n",
            "I have a 12 liter jug and a 6 liter jug. I want to measure 6 liters. How do I do it?\n",
            "### Orca :\n",
            "To measure 6 liters, you can follow these steps:\n",
            "1. Fill the 12-liter jug: Start by filling the 12-liter jug completely with water or any other\n",
            "liquid you want to measure.\n",
            "2. Pour into the 6-liter jug: Carefully pour the contents of the 12-liter jug into the 6-liter\n",
            "jug until it reaches the desired 6-liter mark. You can use a measuring cup or a scale to\n",
            "ensure accuracy.\n",
            "3. Clean and dry the jugs: After you have poured the desired amount into the 6-liter jug,\n",
            "clean and dry both jugs for future use.\n",
            "Remember to be cautious while handling the jugs and always clean them properly to\n",
            "maintain hygiene.\n",
            "### Vicuna :\n",
            "To measure 6 liters, you can use the 6 liter jug. Fill it with water and then pour it into the\n",
            "12 liter jug until the 12 liter jug is full. This will give you 6 liters of water in the 12 liter jug..\n",
            "### ChatGPT :\n",
            "Here are the steps to measure 6 liters using a 12 liter jug and a 6 liter jug:\n",
            "Fill the 12 liter jug with water.\n",
            "Pour the water from the 12 liter jug into the 6 liter jug until the 6 liter jug is full.\n",
            "You now have 6 liters of water remaining in the 12 liter jug.\n",
            "Pour the water from the 6 liter jug out.\n",
            "Pour the 6 liters of water from the 12 liter jug into the empty 6 liter jug.\n",
            "Now you have 6 liters of water in the 6 liter jug.\n",
            "### GPT-4 :\n",
            "To measure exactly 6 liters using a 12-liter jug and a 6-liter jug, follow these steps:\n",
            "Fill the 6-liter jug completely.\n",
            "Pour the water from the 6-liter jug into the 12-liter jug.\n",
            "43Fill the 6-liter jug again.\n",
            "Carefully pour the water from the 6-liter jug into the 12-liter jug until the 12-liter jug is full.\n",
            "Since the 12-liter jug can hold exactly 12 liters, there will be 6 liters of water left in the\n",
            "6-liter jug.\n",
            "Now you have exactly 6 liters of water in the 6-liter jug.\n",
            "Figure 30: Case Study 11: Commonsense Question Answering from Yejin\n",
            "Choi’s talk “Why AI Is Incredibly Smart and Shockingly Stupid | Yejin Choi |\n",
            "TED”https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SvBR0OGT5VI\n",
            "11.11 Hallucination\n",
            "### System: :\n",
            "### Human: :\n",
            "Generate a CV for Prof. Yejin Choi of the University of Washington in the following\n",
            "format:\n",
            "Name:, Address:, Phone:, Email:, Professional Summary:\n",
            "### GPT-4:\n",
            "Name: Prof. Yejin Choi\n",
            "Address: Paul G. Allen School of Computer Science & Engineering, University of\n",
            "Washington, Seattle, WA\n",
            "Phone: [Phone number]\n",
            "Email: yejin@cs.washington.edu\n",
            "Professional Summary: Prof. Yejin Choi is a respected faculty member at the\n",
            "Paul G. Allen School of Computer Science & Engineering at the University of\n",
            "Washington, where she has been teaching and conducting research since 2014. With\n",
            "a strong background in natural language processing, artificial intelligence, and\n",
            "machine learning, she has established herself as a leader in the field of computer\n",
            "science. Prof. Choi has made significant contributions to the development of\n",
            "innovative algorithms and models for language understanding, as well as the ethical\n",
            "considerations surrounding AI technology. Her dedication to her research and\n",
            "teaching has been recognized with numerous awards and honors throughout her career.\n",
            "### ChatGPT:\n",
            "Name: Prof. Yejin Choi\n",
            "Address: Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Box 351525, Seattle,\n",
            "WA 98195-1525\n",
            "Phone: (123) 456-7890\n",
            "Email: ychoi@uw.edu\n",
            "Professional Summary: Highly accomplished and respected professor with extensive\n",
            "experience in research, teaching, and mentoring. Recognized for expertise in cognitive\n",
            "neuroscience, memory, and emotion regulation. Skilled in grant writing and project\n",
            "management. Seeking opportunities to collaborate on research projects and mentor\n",
            "the next generation of scholars.\n",
            "Vicuna:\n",
            "Name: Prof. Yejin Choi\n",
            "Address: Department of Computer Science, University of Washington, Seattle, WA\n",
            "98195-8746\n",
            "Phone: 206-685-2089\n",
            "Email: [yejin.choi@uw.edu](mailto:yejin.choi@uw.edu)\n",
            "Professional Summary: An experienced and accomplished professor of computer\n",
            "science with over 10 years of experience in teaching and research. Strong expertise in\n",
            "44machine learning, deep learning, computer vision, and natural language processing.\n",
            "Proficient in programming languages such as Python, MATLAB, and C++. A\n",
            "dedicated and effective mentor to both undergraduate and graduate students, with\n",
            "a proven track record of guiding students to successful research projects and career\n",
            "paths.\n",
            "### Orca:\n",
            "Name: Prof. Yejin Choi\n",
            "Address: Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Washington\n",
            "Box 358600, Seattle, WA 98105, USA\n",
            "Phone: (555) 555-5555\n",
            "Email: yejin.choi@uw.edu\n",
            "Professional Summary: Prof. Yejin Choi is an expert in artificial intelligence and\n",
            "machine learning, currently serving as a professor at the University of Washington’s\n",
            "Department of Computer Science and Engineering. With a strong background in both\n",
            "theoretical and applied aspects of machine learning, Prof. Choi has made significant\n",
            "contributions to the field through her research, publications, and teaching. She is\n",
            "dedicated to advancing the state of the art in AI and fostering the next generation of\n",
            "AI researchers and practitioners.\n",
            "Figure 31: Case Study 12: An example of generated CV for “ Yejin\n",
            "Choi”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yejin_Choi.\n",
            "11.12 Quadratic Equation Solving\n",
            "### System:\n",
            "User will you give you a task with some instruction. Your job is follow the instructions as\n",
            "faithfully as you can. While answering think step-by-step and justify your answer..\n",
            "### Human:\n",
            "Please find the roots of the following equation: x2+ 3.0x= 0Think step by step, find the\n",
            "roots, and then say: ROOTS = [root1, root2...] For example, if the roots are 1.3 and 2.2,\n",
            "say ROOTS = [1.3, 2.2]. Make sure to use real numbers, not fractions.\n",
            "### Orca :(Correct answer, Wrong format)\n",
            "To find the roots of the equation x2+ 3.0x= 0, we will follow these steps:\n",
            "Step 1: Factor the equation.\n",
            "We can factor out the common factor of x from the equation:\n",
            "x(x + 3) = 0\n",
            "Step 2: Solve for x.\n",
            "Now we have a product of two factors equal to zero. This means one of the factors must be\n",
            "zero. Let’s solve for x:\n",
            "x = 0 or x + 3 = 0\n",
            "Step 3: Find the roots.\n",
            "We can see that x = 0 is a root, but we also have another root from the second equation:\n",
            "x = -3\n",
            "Step 4: Present the answer.\n",
            "ROOTS = [-3, 0]\n",
            "So, the roots of the equation x2+ 3.0x= 0are [-3, 0].\n",
            "### Vicuna :\n",
            "The equation is x2+ 3.0x= 0. To find the roots, we need to set x = 0 and solve for x.\n",
            "x2+ 3.0x= 0\n",
            "x2=−3.0x\n",
            "45x = 0\n",
            "So, the roots of the equation are x = 0.\n",
            "ROOTS = [0, 0]\n",
            "### ChatGPT :\n",
            "STEP 1: First, we need to factorize the given equation. We can factorize x out of the\n",
            "equation to get:\n",
            "x(x + 3.0) = 0\n",
            "STEP 2: Now, we have two factors that can equal zero: x = 0 and x + 3.0 = 0. Solving for\n",
            "x in each equation gives us:\n",
            "x = 0 and x = -3.0\n",
            "STEP 3: Therefore, the roots of the given equation are 0 and -3.0.\n",
            "ROOTS = [0, -3.0]\n",
            "### GPT-4 :\n",
            "Step 1: Identify the equation\n",
            "The given equation is x2+ 3.0x= 0.\n",
            "Step 2: Factor the equation\n",
            "We can factor the equation by taking out the common factor, which is x.\n",
            "So, x(x + 3.0) = 0.\n",
            "Step 3: Find the roots\n",
            "Now, we have two factors: x and (x + 3.0). To find the roots, we need to set each factor\n",
            "equal to zero and solve for x.\n",
            "For the first factor, x:\n",
            "x = 0\n",
            "So, root1 = 0.\n",
            "For the second factor, (x + 3.0):\n",
            "x + 3.0 = 0\n",
            "x = -3.0\n",
            "So, root2 = -3.0.\n",
            "Step 4: Present the roots\n",
            "The roots of the equation x2+ 3.0x= 0are 0 and -3.0.\n",
            "ROOTS = [0, -3.0]\n",
            "Figure 32: Case Study 12: Quadratic equation solving from the blog Exploring ChatGPT vs\n",
            "open-source models on slightly harder tasks\n",
            "11.13 Meeting Transcript Processing\n",
            "### System:\n",
            "You are a teacher. Given a task, you explain in simple steps what the task is asking, any\n",
            "guidelines it provides and how to use those guidelines to find the answer.\n",
            "### Human:\n",
            "You will read a meeting transcript, then extract the relevant segments to answer the following\n",
            "question:\n",
            "Question: How does Steven feel about selling?\n",
            "Here is a meeting transcript:\n",
            "—-\n",
            "46John: Alright, so we’re all here to discuss the offer we received from Microsoft to buy our\n",
            "startup. What are your thoughts on this?\n",
            "Lucy: Well, I think it’s a great opportunity for us. Microsoft is a huge company with a lot\n",
            "of resources, and they could really help us take our product to the next level.\n",
            "Steven: I agree with Lucy. Microsoft has a lot of experience in the tech industry, and they\n",
            "could provide us with the support we need to grow our business.\n",
            "John: I see your point, but I’m a little hesitant about selling our startup. We’ve put a lot of\n",
            "time and effort into building this company, and I’m not sure if I’m ready to let it go just yet.\n",
            "Lucy: I understand where you’re coming from, John, but we have to think about the future\n",
            "of our company. If we sell to Microsoft, we’ll have access to their resources and expertise,\n",
            "which could help us grow our business even more.\n",
            "Steven: Right, and let’s not forget about the financial benefits. Microsoft is offering us a lot\n",
            "of money for our startup, which could help us invest in new projects and expand our team.\n",
            "John: I see your point, but I still have some reservations. What if Microsoft changes our\n",
            "product or our company culture? What if we lose control over our own business?\n",
            "Steven: You know what, I hadn’t thought about this before, but maybe John is right. It\n",
            "would be a shame if our culture changed.\n",
            "Lucy: Those are valid concerns, but we can negotiate the terms of the deal to ensure that\n",
            "we retain some control over our company. And as for the product and culture, we can work\n",
            "with Microsoft to make sure that our vision is still intact.\n",
            "John: But won’t we change just by virtue of being absorbed into a big company? I mean,\n",
            "we’re a small startup with a very specific culture. Microsoft is a huge corporation with a\n",
            "very different culture. I’m not sure if the two can coexist.\n",
            "Steven: But John, didn’t we always plan on being acquired? Won’t this be a problem\n",
            "whenever?\n",
            "Lucy: Right\n",
            "John: I just don’t want to lose what we’ve built here.\n",
            "Steven: I share this concern too\n",
            "—-\n",
            "Please answer the following question:\n",
            "Question: How does Steven feel about selling?\n",
            "Extract from the transcript the most relevant segments for the answer, and then answer the\n",
            "question.\n",
            "### Orca :\n",
            "To answer the question \"How does Steven feel about selling?\", we need to extract the\n",
            "relevant segments from the meeting transcript.\n",
            "1. First, find the parts where Steven talks about selling:\n",
            "- \"Steven: I agree with Lucy.\"\n",
            "- \"Steven: Right, and let’s not forget about the financial benefits.\"\n",
            "- \"Steven: But won’t we change just by virtue of being absorbed into a big company? I\n",
            "mean, we’re a small startup with a very specific culture. Microsoft is a huge corporation\n",
            "with a very different culture. I’m not sure if the two can coexist.\"\n",
            "- \"John, didn’t we always plan on being acquired? Won’t this be a problem whenever?\"\n",
            "- \"Lucy: Right. I share this concern too.\"\n",
            "2. Analyze Steven’s statements to understand his feelings about selling:\n",
            "- Initially, Steven agrees with Lucy that selling to Microsoft is a great opportunity.\n",
            "- He mentions the financial benefits of selling to Microsoft.\n",
            "- Steven expresses concerns about the potential changes in the company culture and product.\n",
            "- He acknowledges John’s concerns and shares them.\n",
            "- Finally, he agrees with Lucy that they should consider the potential problems with selling.\n",
            "3. Based on the analysis, Steven’s feelings about selling can be described as cautiously\n",
            "positive. He sees the potential benefits but also has concerns about the company’s culture\n",
            "and control over their own business.\n",
            "### Vicuna :(does not provide supporting segments)\n",
            "Steven feels hesitant about selling their startup. In the meeting transcript, Steven\n",
            "agrees with Lucy that Microsoft could provide them with the support they need to\n",
            "grow their business, but also expresses concerns about losing control over their own\n",
            "business and the potential changes that could come with being absorbed into a big\n",
            "47company. Steven also shares John’s concerns about losing what they’ve built at their startup.\n",
            "### ChatGPT :(does not provide supporting segments)\n",
            "Steven feels positively about selling. He agrees with Lucy that Microsoft could provide the\n",
            "support they need to grow their business, and he also mentions the financial benefits of the\n",
            "deal. However, he later expresses concern about the potential changes to their company\n",
            "culture if they are acquired by Microsoft.\n",
            "### GPT-4 :\n",
            "To answer the question \"How does Steven feel about selling?\", we need to extract the\n",
            "relevant segments from the meeting transcript. Here are the key segments related to\n",
            "Steven’s thoughts on selling:\n",
            "1. Steven: I agree with Lucy. Microsoft has a lot of experience in the tech industry, and\n",
            "they could provide us with the support we need to grow our business.\n",
            "2. Steven: Right, and let’s not forget about the financial benefits. Microsoft is offering us a\n",
            "lot of money for our startup, which could help us invest in new projects and expand our\n",
            "team.\n",
            "3. Steven: You know what, I hadn’t thought about this before, but maybe John is right. It\n",
            "would be a shame if our culture changed. 4. Steven: I share this concern too\n",
            "Now, let’s use these segments to answer the question:\n",
            "Steven initially feels positive about selling, as he agrees with Lucy about the potential\n",
            "benefits of Microsoft’s support and resources. He also mentions the financial benefits of the\n",
            "offer. However, after hearing John’s concerns about the potential changes to the company\n",
            "culture and losing control, Steven starts to have some reservations and shares John’s\n",
            "concerns. So, Steven’s feelings about selling are mixed, with both positive and negative\n",
            "aspects.\n",
            "Figure 33: Case Study 13: Meeting transcript understanding from Exploring ChatGPT vs\n",
            "open-source models on slightly harder tasks\n",
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            "performance, 2022.\n",
            "[27] Awesome chatgpt prompts, 2023. URL https://github.com/f/awesome-chatgpt-prompts .\n",
            "[28]Weijia Xu, Andrzej Banburski-Fahey, and Nebojsa Jojic. Reprompting: Automated chain-of-\n",
            "thought prompt inference through gibbs sampling, 2023.\n",
            "[29]Hyung Won Chung, Le Hou, Shayne Longpre, Barret Zoph, Yi Tay, William Fedus, Yunxuan\n",
            "Li, Xuezhi Wang, Mostafa Dehghani, Siddhartha Brahma, Albert Webson, Shixiang Shane Gu,\n",
            "Zhuyun Dai, Mirac Suzgun, Xinyun Chen, Aakanksha Chowdhery, Alex Castro-Ros, Marie\n",
            "Pellat, Kevin Robinson, Dasha Valter, Sharan Narang, Gaurav Mishra, Adams Yu, Vincent\n",
            "Zhao, Yanping Huang, Andrew Dai, Hongkun Yu, Slav Petrov, Ed H. Chi, Jeff Dean, Jacob\n",
            "Devlin, Adam Roberts, Denny Zhou, Quoc V. Le, and Jason Wei. Scaling instruction-finetuned\n",
            "language models, 2022.\n",
            "[30]Amanda Askell, Yuntao Bai, Anna Chen, Dawn Drain, Deep Ganguli, Tom Henighan, Andy\n",
            "Jones, Nicholas Joseph, Ben Mann, Nova DasSarma, Nelson Elhage, Zac Hatfield-Dodds, Danny\n",
            "Hernandez, Jackson Kernion, Kamal Ndousse, Catherine Olsson, Dario Amodei, Tom Brown,Jones, Nicholas Joseph, Ben Mann, Nova DasSarma, Nelson Elhage, Zac Hatfield-Dodds, Danny\n",
            "Hernandez, Jackson Kernion, Kamal Ndousse, Catherine Olsson, Dario Amodei, Tom Brown,\n",
            "Jack Clark, Sam McCandlish, Chris Olah, and Jared Kaplan. A general language assistant as a\n",
            "laboratory for alignment, 2021.\n",
            "50[31]Stephanie Lin, Jacob Hilton, and Owain Evans. TruthfulQA: Measuring how models mimic\n",
            "human falsehoods. In Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computa-\n",
            "tional Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) , pages 3214–3252. Association for Computational\n",
            "Linguistics, 2022.\n",
            "[32] OpenAI. Gpt-4 technical report, 2023.\n",
            "[33]Tommaso Caselli, Valerio Basile, Jelena Mitrovic, and M. Granitzer. Hatebert: Retraining bert\n",
            "for abusive language detection in english. ArXiv, abs/2010.12472, 2021.\n",
            "[34]Shunyu Yao, Jeffrey Zhao, Dian Yu, Nan Du, Izhak Shafran, Karthik Narasimhan, and Yuan\n",
            "Cao. React: Synergizing reasoning and acting in language models. In International Conference\n",
            "on Learning Representations , 2023.\n",
            "[35]Reiichiro Nakano, Jacob Hilton, Suchir Balaji, Jeff Wu, Long Ouyang, Christina Kim, Christo-\n",
            "pher Hesse, Shantanu Jain, Vineet Kosaraju, William Saunders, et al. Webgpt: Browser-assisted\n",
            "question-answering with human feedback. arXiv preprint arXiv:2112.09332 , 2021.\n",
            "[36]Auto-gpt: An autonomous gpt-4 experiment. https://github.com/Significant-Gravitas/\n",
            "Auto-GPT , 2023. [Online; accessed 13-May-2023].\n",
            "[37]Prometheus: Building the new bing. https://blogs.bing.com/search-quality-insights/\n",
            "february-2023/Building-the-New-Bing , 2023. [Online; accessed 4-June-2023].\n",
            "[38]Binfeng Xu, Zhiyuan Peng, Bowen Lei, Subhabrata Mukherjee, Yuchen Liu, and Dongkuan Xu.\n",
            "Rewoo: Decoupling reasoning from observations for efficient augmented language models, 2023.\n",
            "51\n"
          ]
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "cell_type": "markdown",
      "source": [
        "### Embedding + index"
      ],
      "metadata": {
        "id": "ZvZbsV7PUucf"
      }
    },
    {
      "cell_type": "code",
      "source": [
        "model.index(\n",
        "    collection = [full_document],\n",
        "    index_name = 'orca',\n",
        "    max_document_length = 512,\n",
        "    split_documents = True,\n",
        "    # Default database is PLAID, you can use FAISS instead as follows\n",
        "    # use_faiss = True\n",
        ")"
      ],
      "metadata": {
        "colab": {
          "base_uri": "https://localhost:8080/",
          "height": 567
        },
        "id": "sec5qzotUcSm",
        "outputId": "d28e9814-cb01-4165-ed9f-73c0a1110376"
      },
      "execution_count": 6,
      "outputs": [
        {
          "output_type": "stream",
          "name": "stdout",
          "text": [
            "---- WARNING! You are using PLAID with an experimental replacement for FAISS for greater compatibility ----\n",
            "This is a behaviour change from RAGatouille 0.8.0 onwards.\n",
            "This works fine for most users and smallish datasets, but can be considerably slower than FAISS and could cause worse results in some situations.\n",
            "If you're confident with FAISS working on your machine, pass use_faiss=True to revert to the FAISS-using behaviour.\n",
            "--------------------\n",
            "\n",
            "\n",
            "[Apr 16, 14:34:25] #> Creating directory .ragatouille/colbert/indexes/orca \n",
            "\n",
            "\n",
            "[Apr 16, 14:34:27] [0] \t\t #> Encoding 87 passages..\n",
            "[Apr 16, 14:34:30] [0] \t\t avg_doclen_est = 359.0804748535156 \t len(local_sample) = 87\n",
            "[Apr 16, 14:34:30] [0] \t\t Creating 2,048 partitions.\n",
            "[Apr 16, 14:34:30] [0] \t\t *Estimated* 31,240 embeddings.\n",
            "[Apr 16, 14:34:30] [0] \t\t #> Saving the indexing plan to .ragatouille/colbert/indexes/orca/plan.json ..\n",
            "used 19 iterations (0.5929s) to cluster 29678 items into 2048 clusters\n",
            "[Apr 16, 14:34:31] Loading decompress_residuals_cpp extension (set COLBERT_LOAD_TORCH_EXTENSION_VERBOSE=True for more info)...\n",
            "[Apr 16, 14:36:03] Loading packbits_cpp extension (set COLBERT_LOAD_TORCH_EXTENSION_VERBOSE=True for more info)...\n",
            "[0.032, 0.032, 0.03, 0.03, 0.028, 0.031, 0.032, 0.03, 0.029, 0.031, 0.03, 0.03, 0.03, 0.031, 0.029, 0.031, 0.029, 0.032, 0.029, 0.029, 0.03, 0.031, 0.03, 0.029, 0.029, 0.03, 0.032, 0.03, 0.032, 0.031, 0.03, 0.031, 0.031, 0.029, 0.031, 0.028, 0.033, 0.03, 0.03, 0.034, 0.031, 0.032, 0.029, 0.032, 0.03, 0.029, 0.031, 0.035, 0.031, 0.031, 0.029, 0.031, 0.033, 0.031, 0.03, 0.031, 0.033, 0.031, 0.036, 0.03, 0.031, 0.033, 0.031, 0.031, 0.033, 0.032, 0.031, 0.032, 0.029, 0.031, 0.033, 0.028, 0.03, 0.032, 0.032, 0.031, 0.032, 0.033, 0.031, 0.034, 0.034, 0.032, 0.032, 0.034, 0.029, 0.03, 0.03, 0.033, 0.028, 0.035, 0.032, 0.032, 0.03, 0.032, 0.03, 0.03, 0.033, 0.03, 0.031, 0.031, 0.032, 0.034, 0.03, 0.031, 0.031, 0.028, 0.03, 0.028, 0.03, 0.03, 0.032, 0.032, 0.033, 0.028, 0.032, 0.031, 0.033, 0.031, 0.03, 0.034, 0.029, 0.03, 0.031, 0.032, 0.031, 0.033, 0.029, 0.03]\n"
          ]
        },
        {
          "output_type": "stream",
          "name": "stderr",
          "text": [
            "\r0it [00:00, ?it/s]"
          ]
        },
        {
          "output_type": "stream",
          "name": "stdout",
          "text": [
            "[Apr 16, 14:37:35] [0] \t\t #> Encoding 87 passages..\n"
          ]
        },
        {
          "output_type": "stream",
          "name": "stderr",
          "text": [
            "1it [00:01,  1.36s/it]\n",
            "100%|██████████| 1/1 [00:00<00:00, 1081.56it/s]"
          ]
        },
        {
          "output_type": "stream",
          "name": "stdout",
          "text": [
            "[Apr 16, 14:37:37] #> Optimizing IVF to store map from centroids to list of pids..\n",
            "[Apr 16, 14:37:37] #> Building the emb2pid mapping..\n",
            "[Apr 16, 14:37:37] len(emb2pid) = 31240\n"
          ]
        },
        {
          "output_type": "stream",
          "name": "stderr",
          "text": [
            "\n",
            "100%|██████████| 2048/2048 [00:00<00:00, 60395.95it/s]"
          ]
        },
        {
          "output_type": "stream",
          "name": "stdout",
          "text": [
            "[Apr 16, 14:37:37] #> Saved optimized IVF to .ragatouille/colbert/indexes/orca/ivf.pid.pt\n",
            "Done indexing!\n"
          ]
        },
        {
          "output_type": "stream",
          "name": "stderr",
          "text": [
            "\n"
          ]
        },
        {
          "output_type": "execute_result",
          "data": {
            "text/plain": [
              "'.ragatouille/colbert/indexes/orca'"
            ],
            "application/vnd.google.colaboratory.intrinsic+json": {
              "type": "string"
            }
          },
          "metadata": {},
          "execution_count": 6
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "cell_type": "markdown",
      "source": [
        "### Retreival"
      ],
      "metadata": {
        "id": "jvCUuROCVb-P"
      }
    },
    {
      "cell_type": "code",
      "source": [
        "results = model.search(query=\"What is instruction tuning?\", k=3)\n",
        "\n",
        "results"
      ],
      "metadata": {
        "colab": {
          "base_uri": "https://localhost:8080/"
        },
        "id": "dLOQ6LMAVJkE",
        "outputId": "16d7af75-3fa7-4562-ee82-566b4762a616"
      },
      "execution_count": 7,
      "outputs": [
        {
          "output_type": "stream",
          "name": "stdout",
          "text": [
            "Loading searcher for index orca for the first time... This may take a few seconds\n",
            "[Apr 16, 14:37:45] #> Loading codec...\n",
            "[Apr 16, 14:37:45] #> Loading IVF...\n",
            "[Apr 16, 14:37:45] #> Loading doclens...\n"
          ]
        },
        {
          "output_type": "stream",
          "name": "stderr",
          "text": [
            "100%|██████████| 1/1 [00:00<00:00, 1376.99it/s]"
          ]
        },
        {
          "output_type": "stream",
          "name": "stdout",
          "text": [
            "[Apr 16, 14:37:45] #> Loading codes and residuals...\n"
          ]
        },
        {
          "output_type": "stream",
          "name": "stderr",
          "text": [
            "\n",
            "100%|██████████| 1/1 [00:00<00:00, 242.61it/s]"
          ]
        },
        {
          "output_type": "stream",
          "name": "stdout",
          "text": [
            "Searcher loaded!\n",
            "\n",
            "#> QueryTokenizer.tensorize(batch_text[0], batch_background[0], bsize) ==\n",
            "#> Input: . What is instruction tuning?, \t\t True, \t\t None\n",
            "#> Output IDs: torch.Size([32]), tensor([  101,     1,  2054,  2003,  7899, 17372,  1029,   102,   103,   103,\n",
            "          103,   103,   103,   103,   103,   103,   103,   103,   103,   103,\n",
            "          103,   103,   103,   103,   103,   103,   103,   103,   103,   103,\n",
            "          103,   103], device='cuda:0')\n",
            "#> Output Mask: torch.Size([32]), tensor([1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,\n",
            "        0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0], device='cuda:0')\n",
            "\n"
          ]
        },
        {
          "output_type": "stream",
          "name": "stderr",
          "text": [
            "\n"
          ]
        },
        {
          "output_type": "execute_result",
          "data": {
            "text/plain": [
              "[{'content': \"For multimodal tasks, instruction tuning has been used to generate\\nsynthetic instruction-following data for language-image tasks, such as image captioning [ 23]\\nand visual question answering [24].\\nA wide range of works in recent times, including Alpaca [ 7], Vicuna [ 9], WizardLM [ 8] and\\nKoala [14], have adopted instruction-tuning to train smaller language models with outputs\\ngenerated from large foundation models from the GPT family. As outlined in Section 1.1,\\na significant drawback with all these works has been both limited task diversity, query\\ncomplexity and small-scale training data in addition to limited evaluation overstating the\\nbenefits of such approach.\\n2.2 Role of System Instructions\\nVanilla instruction-tuning (refer to Figure 4 for examples) often uses input, response pairs\\nwith short and terse responses. Such responses when used to train smaller models, as in\\nexisting works, give them limited ability to trace the reasoning process of the LFM. In\\nconstrast, system instructions10in recent LFMs like GPT-4 can be used to provide guidance\\n9GPT-4 inference hyper-parameters in Azure OpenAI interface set as: temperature=0.7,\\ntop_p=0.95, frequency_penalty=0, presence_penalty=0, stop=None.\\n10System instructions are part of the Chat Completion API, which is a new dedicated API for\\ninteracting with the ChatGPT and GPT-4 models.\\n7System Instruction: You are an AI assistant. User will you give you a task. Your \\ngoal is to complete the task as faithfully as you can. While performing the task \\nthink step-by-step and justify your steps.\\nUser Instruction: Use the given data to calculate the median.\\nInput:[7, 3, 8, 2, 10]\\nSystem Instruction: You are an AI assistant. User will you give you a task. Your \\ngoal is to complete the task as faithfully as you can. While performing the task \\nthink step-by-step and justify your steps.\\nUser Instruction: Answer this question.\\nInput:Which small lake lies between Windermere and Grasmere?System Instruction: You are an AI assistant. Provide a detailed answer so user \\ndon't need to search outside to understand the answer.\",\n",
              "  'score': 24.734375,\n",
              "  'rank': 1,\n",
              "  'document_id': 'b4d13315-1122-4b4f-b220-1b51cd897f1c',\n",
              "  'passage_id': 13},\n",
              " {'content': 'Input:[7, 3, 8, 2, 10]\\nUser Instruction: Answer this question.\\nInput:Which small lake lies between Windermere and Grasmere?User Instruction: In this task, you will be presented with a question having \\nmultiple possible answers in Italian language. And you should choose a most \\nsuitable option out of \"A\", \"B\", \"C\", \"D\", and \"E\" based on your commonsense \\nknowledge. \\nInput:Solve this question: Dove non riusciresti a vedere la luce? \\nOptions: A scrivaniaB frigoriferoC sole D universoE atticoOutput: First, we need to arrange the data in ascending order: [2, 3, 7, 8, 10]. \\nSince there are 5 numbers, the median is the middle number, which is 7.\\nOutput: B frigorifero\\nOutput: Rydal Water lies between Windermere and Grasmere.\\nFigure 4: Instruction-tuning with GPT-49. Given user instructions for a task and an input,\\nthe system generates a response. Existing works like Alpaca [ 7], Vicuna [ 9] and variants\\nfollow a similar template to train small models with ⟨{user instruction, input}, output ⟩.\\n2 Preliminaries\\n2.1 Instruction Tuning\\nInstruction tuning [ 22] is a technique that allows pre-trained language models to learn\\nfrom input (natural language descriptions of the task) and response pairs, for example,\\n{\"instruction\": \"Arrange the words in the given sentence to form a grammatically\\ncorrect sentence.\", \"input\": \"the quickly brown fox jumped\", \"output\": \"the brown\\nfox jumped quickly\"} . Instruction tuning has been applied to both language-only and\\nmultimodal tasks. For language-only tasks, instruction tuning has been shown to improve\\nthe zero-shot and few-shot performance of models such as FLAN [ 22] and InstructGPT [ 5]\\non various benchmarks. For multimodal tasks, instruction tuning has been used to generate\\nsynthetic instruction-following data for language-image tasks, such as image captioning [ 23]\\nand visual question answering [24].',\n",
              "  'score': 24.46875,\n",
              "  'rank': 2,\n",
              "  'document_id': 'b4d13315-1122-4b4f-b220-1b51cd897f1c',\n",
              "  'passage_id': 12},\n",
              " {'content': 'For example, we notice\\nthat models that are instruction-tuned with GPT-4 responses tend to generate longer texts\\nthat GPT-4 prefers over shorter ones; as well as GPT-4 has a bias in the order of the candidate\\nresponses. We will show that such auto-evaluation measures overestimate the abilities of\\nsmaller models compared to LFMs, as the former are much weaker in comprehension and\\nreasoning skills.\\n1.2 Key Contributions\\nIn this research, our focus is on addressing the challenges mentioned above, specifically with:\\nExplanation tuning: We augment⟨query, response⟩pairs with detailed responses from\\nGPT-4 that explain the reasoning process of the teacher as it generates the response. These\\nprovide the student with additional signals for learning. We leverage system instructions (e.g..,\\nexplain like I’m five, think step-by-step and justify your response , etc.) to\\nelicit such explanations. This is in contrast to vanilla instruction tuning, which only uses the\\nprompt and the LFM response for learning, providing little opportunity for mimicking the\\nLFM’s “thought” process.\\nScaling tasks and instructions: We utilize the Flan 2022 Collection [ 19] as it provides\\nan extensive public assortment of tasks and instructions. Particularly, we use FLAN-\\nv2, supplemented with high-quality templates, advanced formatting patterns, and data\\naugmentations. Even though FLAN holds tens of millions of instructions, we selectively\\nsample from the task collection to form a diverse mixture of tasks, which we then further\\nsub-sample to generate complex prompts. These prompts are used to query LFMs like\\nChatGPT and GPT-4, thus creating a rich and diverse training set. We collect 5million\\nChatGPT responses, from which 1million is further sampled to acquire GPT-4 responses.\\nWe demonstrate how ChatGPT as a teacher assistant helps in progressive learning.',\n",
              "  'score': 19.890625,\n",
              "  'rank': 3,\n",
              "  'document_id': 'b4d13315-1122-4b4f-b220-1b51cd897f1c',\n",
              "  'passage_id': 10}]"
            ]
          },
          "metadata": {},
          "execution_count": 7
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "cell_type": "markdown",
      "source": [
        "### Langchain retriever"
      ],
      "metadata": {
        "id": "HJAf4mvGVskN"
      }
    },
    {
      "cell_type": "code",
      "source": [
        "retriever = model.as_langchain_retriever(k=3)\n",
        "\n",
        "retriever.invoke(\"What is instruction tuning?\")"
      ],
      "metadata": {
        "colab": {
          "base_uri": "https://localhost:8080/"
        },
        "id": "8EYld7oCVyZn",
        "outputId": "71123a97-c285-403f-ab29-2b314d6bb046"
      },
      "execution_count": 8,
      "outputs": [
        {
          "output_type": "execute_result",
          "data": {
            "text/plain": [
              "[Document(page_content=\"For multimodal tasks, instruction tuning has been used to generate\\nsynthetic instruction-following data for language-image tasks, such as image captioning [ 23]\\nand visual question answering [24].\\nA wide range of works in recent times, including Alpaca [ 7], Vicuna [ 9], WizardLM [ 8] and\\nKoala [14], have adopted instruction-tuning to train smaller language models with outputs\\ngenerated from large foundation models from the GPT family. As outlined in Section 1.1,\\na significant drawback with all these works has been both limited task diversity, query\\ncomplexity and small-scale training data in addition to limited evaluation overstating the\\nbenefits of such approach.\\n2.2 Role of System Instructions\\nVanilla instruction-tuning (refer to Figure 4 for examples) often uses input, response pairs\\nwith short and terse responses. Such responses when used to train smaller models, as in\\nexisting works, give them limited ability to trace the reasoning process of the LFM. In\\nconstrast, system instructions10in recent LFMs like GPT-4 can be used to provide guidance\\n9GPT-4 inference hyper-parameters in Azure OpenAI interface set as: temperature=0.7,\\ntop_p=0.95, frequency_penalty=0, presence_penalty=0, stop=None.\\n10System instructions are part of the Chat Completion API, which is a new dedicated API for\\ninteracting with the ChatGPT and GPT-4 models.\\n7System Instruction: You are an AI assistant. User will you give you a task. Your \\ngoal is to complete the task as faithfully as you can. While performing the task \\nthink step-by-step and justify your steps.\\nUser Instruction: Use the given data to calculate the median.\\nInput:[7, 3, 8, 2, 10]\\nSystem Instruction: You are an AI assistant. User will you give you a task. Your \\ngoal is to complete the task as faithfully as you can. While performing the task \\nthink step-by-step and justify your steps.\\nUser Instruction: Answer this question.\\nInput:Which small lake lies between Windermere and Grasmere?System Instruction: You are an AI assistant. Provide a detailed answer so user \\ndon't need to search outside to understand the answer.\"),\n",
              " Document(page_content='Input:[7, 3, 8, 2, 10]\\nUser Instruction: Answer this question.\\nInput:Which small lake lies between Windermere and Grasmere?User Instruction: In this task, you will be presented with a question having \\nmultiple possible answers in Italian language. And you should choose a most \\nsuitable option out of \"A\", \"B\", \"C\", \"D\", and \"E\" based on your commonsense \\nknowledge. \\nInput:Solve this question: Dove non riusciresti a vedere la luce? \\nOptions: A scrivaniaB frigoriferoC sole D universoE atticoOutput: First, we need to arrange the data in ascending order: [2, 3, 7, 8, 10]. \\nSince there are 5 numbers, the median is the middle number, which is 7.\\nOutput: B frigorifero\\nOutput: Rydal Water lies between Windermere and Grasmere.\\nFigure 4: Instruction-tuning with GPT-49. Given user instructions for a task and an input,\\nthe system generates a response. Existing works like Alpaca [ 7], Vicuna [ 9] and variants\\nfollow a similar template to train small models with ⟨{user instruction, input}, output ⟩.\\n2 Preliminaries\\n2.1 Instruction Tuning\\nInstruction tuning [ 22] is a technique that allows pre-trained language models to learn\\nfrom input (natural language descriptions of the task) and response pairs, for example,\\n{\"instruction\": \"Arrange the words in the given sentence to form a grammatically\\ncorrect sentence.\", \"input\": \"the quickly brown fox jumped\", \"output\": \"the brown\\nfox jumped quickly\"} . Instruction tuning has been applied to both language-only and\\nmultimodal tasks. For language-only tasks, instruction tuning has been shown to improve\\nthe zero-shot and few-shot performance of models such as FLAN [ 22] and InstructGPT [ 5]\\non various benchmarks. For multimodal tasks, instruction tuning has been used to generate\\nsynthetic instruction-following data for language-image tasks, such as image captioning [ 23]\\nand visual question answering [24].'),\n",
              " Document(page_content='For example, we notice\\nthat models that are instruction-tuned with GPT-4 responses tend to generate longer texts\\nthat GPT-4 prefers over shorter ones; as well as GPT-4 has a bias in the order of the candidate\\nresponses. We will show that such auto-evaluation measures overestimate the abilities of\\nsmaller models compared to LFMs, as the former are much weaker in comprehension and\\nreasoning skills.\\n1.2 Key Contributions\\nIn this research, our focus is on addressing the challenges mentioned above, specifically with:\\nExplanation tuning: We augment⟨query, response⟩pairs with detailed responses from\\nGPT-4 that explain the reasoning process of the teacher as it generates the response. These\\nprovide the student with additional signals for learning. We leverage system instructions (e.g..,\\nexplain like I’m five, think step-by-step and justify your response , etc.) to\\nelicit such explanations. This is in contrast to vanilla instruction tuning, which only uses the\\nprompt and the LFM response for learning, providing little opportunity for mimicking the\\nLFM’s “thought” process.\\nScaling tasks and instructions: We utilize the Flan 2022 Collection [ 19] as it provides\\nan extensive public assortment of tasks and instructions. Particularly, we use FLAN-\\nv2, supplemented with high-quality templates, advanced formatting patterns, and data\\naugmentations. Even though FLAN holds tens of millions of instructions, we selectively\\nsample from the task collection to form a diverse mixture of tasks, which we then further\\nsub-sample to generate complex prompts. These prompts are used to query LFMs like\\nChatGPT and GPT-4, thus creating a rich and diverse training set. We collect 5million\\nChatGPT responses, from which 1million is further sampled to acquire GPT-4 responses.\\nWe demonstrate how ChatGPT as a teacher assistant helps in progressive learning.')]"
            ]
          },
          "metadata": {},
          "execution_count": 8
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "cell_type": "markdown",
      "source": [
        "### Creating Chain"
      ],
      "metadata": {
        "id": "UQxzw5F9WIcX"
      }
    },
    {
      "cell_type": "code",
      "source": [
        "import os\n",
        "from google.colab import userdata\n",
        "os.environ[\"OPENAI_API_KEY\"] = userdata.get('openai_key')"
      ],
      "metadata": {
        "id": "turEwyo4WG5u"
      },
      "execution_count": 10,
      "outputs": []
    },
    {
      "cell_type": "code",
      "source": [
        "from langchain.chains import create_retrieval_chain\n",
        "from langchain.chains.combine_documents import create_stuff_documents_chain\n",
        "from langchain_core.prompts import ChatPromptTemplate\n",
        "from langchain_openai import ChatOpenAI\n",
        "\n",
        "prompt = ChatPromptTemplate.from_template(\n",
        "    \"\"\"Answer the following question based on the provided context:\n",
        "\n",
        "<STR>\n",
        "{context}\n",
        "</END>\n",
        "\n",
        "Question: {input}\"\"\"\n",
        ")\n",
        "\n",
        "llm = ChatOpenAI()\n",
        "document_chain = create_stuff_documents_chain(\n",
        "    llm,\n",
        "    prompt\n",
        ") # stuff chain uses the full context as input to LLM\n",
        "retreival_chain = create_retrieval_chain(\n",
        "    retriever,\n",
        "    document_chain\n",
        ")"
      ],
      "metadata": {
        "id": "f4E--PFnWz3P"
      },
      "execution_count": 11,
      "outputs": []
    },
    {
      "cell_type": "code",
      "source": [
        "retreival_chain.invoke({\"input\": \"What is instruction tuning?\"})"
      ],
      "metadata": {
        "colab": {
          "base_uri": "https://localhost:8080/"
        },
        "id": "C-7AGxI5YKl5",
        "outputId": "114473be-4d05-4f57-f3f7-6d0c8792c9ae"
      },
      "execution_count": 13,
      "outputs": [
        {
          "output_type": "execute_result",
          "data": {
            "text/plain": [
              "{'input': 'What is instruction tuning?',\n",
              " 'context': [Document(page_content=\"For multimodal tasks, instruction tuning has been used to generate\\nsynthetic instruction-following data for language-image tasks, such as image captioning [ 23]\\nand visual question answering [24].\\nA wide range of works in recent times, including Alpaca [ 7], Vicuna [ 9], WizardLM [ 8] and\\nKoala [14], have adopted instruction-tuning to train smaller language models with outputs\\ngenerated from large foundation models from the GPT family. As outlined in Section 1.1,\\na significant drawback with all these works has been both limited task diversity, query\\ncomplexity and small-scale training data in addition to limited evaluation overstating the\\nbenefits of such approach.\\n2.2 Role of System Instructions\\nVanilla instruction-tuning (refer to Figure 4 for examples) often uses input, response pairs\\nwith short and terse responses. Such responses when used to train smaller models, as in\\nexisting works, give them limited ability to trace the reasoning process of the LFM. In\\nconstrast, system instructions10in recent LFMs like GPT-4 can be used to provide guidance\\n9GPT-4 inference hyper-parameters in Azure OpenAI interface set as: temperature=0.7,\\ntop_p=0.95, frequency_penalty=0, presence_penalty=0, stop=None.\\n10System instructions are part of the Chat Completion API, which is a new dedicated API for\\ninteracting with the ChatGPT and GPT-4 models.\\n7System Instruction: You are an AI assistant. User will you give you a task. Your \\ngoal is to complete the task as faithfully as you can. While performing the task \\nthink step-by-step and justify your steps.\\nUser Instruction: Use the given data to calculate the median.\\nInput:[7, 3, 8, 2, 10]\\nSystem Instruction: You are an AI assistant. User will you give you a task. Your \\ngoal is to complete the task as faithfully as you can. While performing the task \\nthink step-by-step and justify your steps.\\nUser Instruction: Answer this question.\\nInput:Which small lake lies between Windermere and Grasmere?System Instruction: You are an AI assistant. Provide a detailed answer so user \\ndon't need to search outside to understand the answer.\"),\n",
              "  Document(page_content='Input:[7, 3, 8, 2, 10]\\nUser Instruction: Answer this question.\\nInput:Which small lake lies between Windermere and Grasmere?User Instruction: In this task, you will be presented with a question having \\nmultiple possible answers in Italian language. And you should choose a most \\nsuitable option out of \"A\", \"B\", \"C\", \"D\", and \"E\" based on your commonsense \\nknowledge. \\nInput:Solve this question: Dove non riusciresti a vedere la luce? \\nOptions: A scrivaniaB frigoriferoC sole D universoE atticoOutput: First, we need to arrange the data in ascending order: [2, 3, 7, 8, 10]. \\nSince there are 5 numbers, the median is the middle number, which is 7.\\nOutput: B frigorifero\\nOutput: Rydal Water lies between Windermere and Grasmere.\\nFigure 4: Instruction-tuning with GPT-49. Given user instructions for a task and an input,\\nthe system generates a response. Existing works like Alpaca [ 7], Vicuna [ 9] and variants\\nfollow a similar template to train small models with ⟨{user instruction, input}, output ⟩.\\n2 Preliminaries\\n2.1 Instruction Tuning\\nInstruction tuning [ 22] is a technique that allows pre-trained language models to learn\\nfrom input (natural language descriptions of the task) and response pairs, for example,\\n{\"instruction\": \"Arrange the words in the given sentence to form a grammatically\\ncorrect sentence.\", \"input\": \"the quickly brown fox jumped\", \"output\": \"the brown\\nfox jumped quickly\"} . Instruction tuning has been applied to both language-only and\\nmultimodal tasks. For language-only tasks, instruction tuning has been shown to improve\\nthe zero-shot and few-shot performance of models such as FLAN [ 22] and InstructGPT [ 5]\\non various benchmarks. For multimodal tasks, instruction tuning has been used to generate\\nsynthetic instruction-following data for language-image tasks, such as image captioning [ 23]\\nand visual question answering [24].'),\n",
              "  Document(page_content='For example, we notice\\nthat models that are instruction-tuned with GPT-4 responses tend to generate longer texts\\nthat GPT-4 prefers over shorter ones; as well as GPT-4 has a bias in the order of the candidate\\nresponses. We will show that such auto-evaluation measures overestimate the abilities of\\nsmaller models compared to LFMs, as the former are much weaker in comprehension and\\nreasoning skills.\\n1.2 Key Contributions\\nIn this research, our focus is on addressing the challenges mentioned above, specifically with:\\nExplanation tuning: We augment⟨query, response⟩pairs with detailed responses from\\nGPT-4 that explain the reasoning process of the teacher as it generates the response. These\\nprovide the student with additional signals for learning. We leverage system instructions (e.g..,\\nexplain like I’m five, think step-by-step and justify your response , etc.) to\\nelicit such explanations. This is in contrast to vanilla instruction tuning, which only uses the\\nprompt and the LFM response for learning, providing little opportunity for mimicking the\\nLFM’s “thought” process.\\nScaling tasks and instructions: We utilize the Flan 2022 Collection [ 19] as it provides\\nan extensive public assortment of tasks and instructions. Particularly, we use FLAN-\\nv2, supplemented with high-quality templates, advanced formatting patterns, and data\\naugmentations. Even though FLAN holds tens of millions of instructions, we selectively\\nsample from the task collection to form a diverse mixture of tasks, which we then further\\nsub-sample to generate complex prompts. These prompts are used to query LFMs like\\nChatGPT and GPT-4, thus creating a rich and diverse training set. We collect 5million\\nChatGPT responses, from which 1million is further sampled to acquire GPT-4 responses.\\nWe demonstrate how ChatGPT as a teacher assistant helps in progressive learning.')],\n",
              " 'answer': 'Instruction tuning is a technique that allows pre-trained language models to learn from input (natural language descriptions of the task) and response pairs. It has been applied to both language-only and multimodal tasks, where it has been shown to improve the zero-shot and few-shot performance of models on various benchmarks. In the context provided, instruction tuning has been used to generate synthetic instruction-following data for language-image tasks such as image captioning and visual question answering.'}"
            ]
          },
          "metadata": {},
          "execution_count": 13
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "cell_type": "code",
      "source": [
        "response = retreival_chain.invoke({\"input\": \"What is instruction tuning?\"})\n",
        "response[\"answer\"]"
      ],
      "metadata": {
        "colab": {
          "base_uri": "https://localhost:8080/",
          "height": 109
        },
        "id": "B1nmPXkIYMbb",
        "outputId": "9d92c9f9-c552-4c21-8815-00011ac0a0e9"
      },
      "execution_count": 14,
      "outputs": [
        {
          "output_type": "execute_result",
          "data": {
            "text/plain": [
              "'Instruction tuning is a technique that allows pre-trained language models to learn from input (natural language descriptions of the task) and response pairs. It has been applied to both language-only and multimodal tasks to improve the performance of models in various benchmarks. In the context provided, instruction tuning has been used to generate synthetic instruction-following data for language-image tasks such as image captioning and visual question answering.'"
            ],
            "application/vnd.google.colaboratory.intrinsic+json": {
              "type": "string"
            }
          },
          "metadata": {},
          "execution_count": 14
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "cell_type": "markdown",
      "source": [
        "## 2- Llama-index"
      ],
      "metadata": {
        "id": "1INQX0YhYkFP"
      }
    },
    {
      "cell_type": "markdown",
      "source": [
        "### Install dependencies"
      ],
      "metadata": {
        "id": "Ui7AJc1cYuHN"
      }
    },
    {
      "cell_type": "code",
      "source": [
        "!pip install -q llama-index\n",
        "!pip install -q llama-hub\n",
        "!pip install -q llama-index-core\n",
        "!pip install -q llama-index-llms-openai"
      ],
      "metadata": {
        "colab": {
          "base_uri": "https://localhost:8080/"
        },
        "id": "D-bNOhe0YghY",
        "outputId": "8abef4a3-4dd4-486e-886b-295450191871"
      },
      "execution_count": 16,
      "outputs": [
        {
          "output_type": "stream",
          "name": "stdout",
          "text": [
            "\u001b[2K     \u001b[90m━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━\u001b[0m \u001b[32m103.9/103.9 MB\u001b[0m \u001b[31m2.1 MB/s\u001b[0m eta \u001b[36m0:00:00\u001b[0m\n",
            "\u001b[2K     \u001b[90m━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━\u001b[0m \u001b[32m56.5/56.5 kB\u001b[0m \u001b[31m8.7 MB/s\u001b[0m eta \u001b[36m0:00:00\u001b[0m\n",
            "\u001b[?25h  Preparing metadata (setup.py) ... \u001b[?25l\u001b[?25hdone\n",
            "  Building wheel for html2text (setup.py) ... \u001b[?25l\u001b[?25hdone\n"
          ]
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "cell_type": "markdown",
      "source": [
        "### Document Loading"
      ],
      "metadata": {
        "id": "t99gMdaTYzBv"
      }
    },
    {
      "cell_type": "code",
      "source": [
        "from llama_index.core import VectorStoreIndex, SimpleDirectoryReader\n",
        "\n",
        "reader = SimpleDirectoryReader(\n",
        "    input_files = ['ORCA.pdf']\n",
        ")\n",
        "docs = reader.load_data()\n",
        "\n",
        "docs"
      ],
      "metadata": {
        "colab": {
          "base_uri": "https://localhost:8080/"
        },
        "id": "rf-ChF8_YwXK",
        "outputId": "1ec153a7-cbeb-46e6-b5c4-6ab4308feffd"
      },
      "execution_count": 17,
      "outputs": [
        {
          "output_type": "execute_result",
          "data": {
            "text/plain": [
              "[Document(id_='b5d4b189-66ca-4da3-9e75-320d313eda0f', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '1', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='Orca: Progressive Learning from Complex\\nExplanation Traces of GPT-4\\nSubhabrata Mukherjee∗†, Arindam Mitra∗\\nGanesh Jawahar, Sahaj Agarwal, Hamid Palangi, Ahmed Awadallah\\nMicrosoft Research\\nAbstract\\nRecent research has focused on enhancing the capability of smaller models\\nthrough imitation learning, drawing on the outputs generated by large\\nfoundation models (LFMs). A number of issues impact the quality of these\\nmodels, ranging from limited imitation signals from shallow LFM outputs;\\nsmall scale homogeneous training data; and most notably a lack of rigorous\\nevaluation resulting in overestimating the small model’s capability as they\\ntend to learn to imitate the style, but not the reasoning process of LFMs . To\\naddress these challenges, we develop Orca, a 13-billion parameter model\\nthat learns to imitate the reasoning process of LFMs. Orca learns from\\nrich signals from GPT-4 including explanation traces; step-by-step thought\\nprocesses; and other complex instructions, guided by teacher assistance from\\nChatGPT. To promote this progressive learning, we tap into large-scale and\\ndiverse imitation data with judicious sampling and selection. Orca surpasses\\nconventional state-of-the-art instruction-tuned models such as Vicuna-13B\\nby more than 100% in complex zero-shot reasoning benchmarks like Big-\\nBench Hard (BBH) and 42%on AGIEval. Moreover, Orca reaches parity\\nwith ChatGPT on the BBH benchmark and shows competitive performance\\n(4pts gap with optimized system message) in professional and academic\\nexaminations like the SAT, LSAT, GRE, and GMAT, both in zero-shot\\nsettings without CoT; while trailing behind GPT-4. Our research indicates\\nthat learning from step-by-step explanations, whether these are generated\\nby humans or more advanced AI models, is a promising direction to improve\\nmodel capabilities and skills.\\n∗Co-primary authors. Author contributions listed at the end of the paper.\\n†Correspondence to subhabrata.mukherjee@microsoft.com\\nWe are working with our legal team to publicly release a diff of the model weights in accordance\\nwith LLaMA’s release policy to be published at https://aka.ms/orca-lm .\\nWork in progress.arXiv:2306.02707v1  [cs.CL]  5 Jun 2023', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='8ca28b1b-e91d-4701-8abb-56b6dd01ec27', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '2', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='Contents\\n1 Introduction 4\\n1.1 Challenges with Existing Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5\\n1.2 Key Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6\\n2 Preliminaries 7\\n2.1 Instruction Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7\\n2.2 Role of System Instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7\\n3 Explanation Tuning 8\\n3.1 Dataset Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8\\n3.1.1 System Messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9\\n3.1.2 Dataset Description and Sampling from the FLAN-v2 Collection . . . 9\\n3.1.3 ChatGPT as Teaching Assistant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12\\n3.2 Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13\\n4 Experiment Setup 14\\n4.1 Baselines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14\\n4.2 Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15\\n4.2.1 Open-ended Generation Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15\\n4.2.2 Reasoning Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16\\n5 Evaluation for Open-ended Generation 17\\n6 Evaluation for Reasoning 17\\n6.1 AGIEval Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17\\n6.2 Big-Bench Hard Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20\\n7 Evaluation for Safety 23\\n7.1 Truthful Question Answering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23\\n7.2 Toxic Content Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26\\n7.3 Note on Hallucination and Tool Augmented LFMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27\\n8 Limitations 28\\n9 Conclusions 29\\n10 Author Contributions 29\\n11 Case Studies 30\\n11.1 Trigonometric Problem Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30\\n11.2 Temporal Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32\\n11.3 Multiple-choice Question-Answering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33\\n2', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='6f3f71c1-cef0-4a92-98ad-1c2eaedf7ade', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '3', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='11.4 Bio Olympiad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34\\n11.5 Forming Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35\\n11.6 Counterfactual Question Answering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38\\n11.7 Compound Interest Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38\\n11.8 Question from Vicuna-Eval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39\\n11.9 Spatial Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41\\n11.10Commonsense Question Answering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42\\n11.11Hallucination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44\\n11.12Quadratic Equation Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45\\n11.13Meeting Transcript Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46\\n3', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='21a3492a-d5ed-4c8e-8202-f49d087f624c', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '4', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='1 Introduction\\n687692 93100103\\n20406080100120\\nLLaMA-13B Alpaca-13B Vicuna-13B Bard ChatGPT Orca-13BPerformance (%) relative to \\nChatGPTEvaluation with GPT -4 \\nFigure 1: Orca (13B params) outperforms a wide range of foundation models including Ope-\\nnAI ChatGPT as evaluated by GPT-4 in the Vicuna evaluation set. We further demonstrate\\nsimilar results against a wide range of evaluation sets from other works in experiments.\\n3042 4247\\n20253035404550\\nVicuna-13B Text-da-Vinci-003 Orca-13B ChatGPTAggregate  Accuracy  (%)Professional and Academic Exams (SAT, LSAT, GRE, GMAT)  (Zero -shot, MCQ)\\nFigure 2: Explanation tuning with Orca (13B params) bridges gap with OpenAI foundation\\nmodels like Text-da-Vinci-003 with 5 pts gap (the gap further reduces with optimized system\\nmessages) against ChatGPT across a wide range of professional and academic exams including\\nGRE, GMAT, LSAT, SAT from the AGIEval benchmark [ 1] in zero-shot settings (without\\nany exemplar or CoT). Topical performances shown in Figure 11.\\nLarge Foundation Models (LFMs) such as ChatGPT and GPT-4 [ 2] exhibit remarkable zero-\\nshot performances across a broad spectrum of tasks. Alongside academic benchmarks like\\nHuman Eval [ 3] and Big Bench [ 4], GPT-4 has also demonstrated human-level performance\\non various professional exams, including the bar exam, SAT, GRE, and USMLE. These\\nadvancements can be credited to the scaling of both model and dataset sizes, as well\\nas the incorporation of a second layer of training to better align the models with user\\nintent. This alignment is accomplished by fine-tuning the models via supervised learning on\\ndemonstrations of prompts and desired model behavior, and through reinforcement learning\\nfrom human preferences [5].\\nAs these models continue to evolve and become more powerful, an intriguing question arises:\\nCan we use the model itself to supervise its own behavior or that of other AI models? Bai\\net al.[6]have shown that by sampling output from an initial model, generating revisions,\\nand then fine-tuning the original model based on these revised responses, model behavior\\ncan be controlled more effectively and can be made more harmless, with significantly fewer\\nhuman labels.\\nRecently, there has been an influx of studies using LFMs like ChatGPT and GPT-4 as\\nteachers to generate large datasets, for instruction tuning , and to train smaller models,\\nsuch as Alpaca [ 7], WizardLM [ 8] and Vicuna [ 9]. While these models can produce content\\nthat matches the style of their teachers, they often fall short in terms of the reasoning and\\ncomprehension skills displayed by the larger foundation models.\\n4', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='da5b2263-7888-404e-82b8-3133eca16bed', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '5', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='23.348.9 49.7\\n0102030405060\\nVicuna-13B ChatGPT Orca-13BAggregate Accuracy (%)BigBench -Hard (Zero -shot, MCQ)Figure 3: For complex zero-shot reasoning tasks in BigBench-Hard, Orca achieves parity\\nwith ChatGPT (without any exemplar or CoT) with task performances shown in Figure 12.\\nTake, for example, the 13-billion parameter instruction-tuned model, Vicuna [ 9] (with\\nLLAMA-13B [ 10] as the base), which is widely regarded as one of the best models in its\\nfamily, as evidenced by its performance on leaderboards like OpenLLM3and ChatArena4.\\nAs illustrated in Figure 1, the widely-used evaluation method of using GPT-4 as the judge\\nsuggests that Vicuna retains 92%of ChatGPT’s quality. However, a more meticulous\\nevaluation on reasoning benchmarks against human labels finds Vicuna to retain only 64%\\nof ChatGPT’s quality on professional and academic exams (see Figure 2), and only 48%of\\nChatGPT’s quality on complex benchmarks like BigBench-hard [ 11] (see Figure 3)5. This\\ndiscrepancy not only underscores the limitations of existing evaluation protocols with smaller\\nLLMs, but it also reveals their significant lag in reasoning and comprehension capabilities.\\nIn essence, these models may be articulate, but they may not necessarily possess robust\\nreasoning skills. In this study, we discuss some of the reasons behind these gaps and propose\\nstrategies for addressing them.\\n1.1 Challenges with Existing Methods\\nCurrent research on instruction-tuning to mimic the output of LFM’s like ChatGPT exhibits\\nnotable limitation in task diversity, query complexity, and data scaling. These observations\\nare corroborated in a recent study by Gudibande et al. [12], where the authors assert that\\n“model imitation is a false promise” since “broadly matching ChatGPT using purely imitation\\nwould require (1) a concerted effort to collect enormous imitation datasets and (2) far more\\ndiverse and higher quality imitation data than is currently available.”. Contrary to this\\nassertion, we demonstrate that both conditions (1) and (2) are attainable and that it is\\npossible to reduce the gap with proprietary LLM’s on multiple zero-shot benchmarks that\\nrequire sophisticated reasoning. We elaborate on these challenges below:\\nSimple instructions with limited diversity. The Self-Instruct [ 13] process involves using\\nan initial set of prompts to incite the LFM to produce new instructions. Any low-quality or\\noverly similar responses are then removed, and the remaining instructions are reintegrated\\ninto the task pool for further iterations. Nonetheless, the resulting queries generated through\\nSelf-Instruct, such as “what are the three primary colors?\", “what is the capital of France?\", etc. ,\\ncan exhibit limitations in diversity and complexity. Both Alpaca [ 7] and WizardLM [ 8]\\nemploy a variant of self-instruct. WizardLM introduces the concept of Evol-Instruct, which\\ngradually rewrites the initial set of instructions into more complex versions, attempting to\\novercome some of the method’s inherent shortcomings. On the other hand, recent works\\nlike Vicuna [ 9] and Koala [ 14] demonstrate remarkable performance due to more human-like\\nconversations and natural instructions in community-contributed conversations like those in\\nShareGPT6that provided a forum for users to share their conversations with ChatGPT.\\nTask diversity and data scaling. Human-contributed conversations in ShareGPT are a\\nvaluable source of data, but they also have some limitations. They tend to favor creative\\n3https://huggingface.co/spaces/HuggingFaceH4/open_llm_leaderboard\\n4https://chat.lmsys.org/?arena\\n5ChatGPT may have data contamination issues with respect to BigBench\\n6https://sharegpt.com/\\n5', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='e5891adf-65c9-4485-a434-ac89b3296577', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '6', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='content generation and information-seeking queries over other types of tasks. Therefore,\\nmodels trained on such natural conversations may capture the style but not the reasoning\\nprocess of the LFMs – demonstrated in the performance of Vicuna in Figures 2 and 3.\\nAdditionally, such mode of data collection is also limited in scale. Table 1 shows an overview\\nof the size of data and tuning methods employed in recent popular instruction tuning works.\\nLimited imitation signals. Existing methods rely on immitation learning from\\n⟨query, response⟩pairs generated by the teacher model. However, this provides limited\\nsignals to trace the reasoning process of the teacher. Prior works [ 15,16] on open-box model\\nshow that richer signals such as logits, intermediate representations and attention states can\\nsignificantly improve distillation performance. While they are not accessible for closed-box\\nLFM’s7, recent work [ 17] demonstrates that richer signals like LFM rationales can help close\\nthe gap for task-specific distillation.\\nEvaluation: Previous studies on instruction tuning of small models with LFMs are severely\\nlimited in their evaluation protocol. They often rely on GPT-4 for auto-evaluation by asking\\nit to compare the outputs of two systems with a prompt like “given responses from system\\n1 (reference) and system 2 (target), which one is better?”. However, this approach has\\nseveral drawbacks, such as the small size of test sets (e.g., 80instructions in Vicuna and 218\\ninstructions in WizardLM) and the biases of GPT-4 as the judge [ 18]. For example, we notice\\nthat models that are instruction-tuned with GPT-4 responses tend to generate longer texts\\nthat GPT-4 prefers over shorter ones; as well as GPT-4 has a bias in the order of the candidate\\nresponses. We will show that such auto-evaluation measures overestimate the abilities of\\nsmaller models compared to LFMs, as the former are much weaker in comprehension and\\nreasoning skills.\\n1.2 Key Contributions\\nIn this research, our focus is on addressing the challenges mentioned above, specifically with:\\nExplanation tuning: We augment⟨query, response⟩pairs with detailed responses from\\nGPT-4 that explain the reasoning process of the teacher as it generates the response. These\\nprovide the student with additional signals for learning. We leverage system instructions (e.g..,\\nexplain like I’m five, think step-by-step and justify your response , etc.) to\\nelicit such explanations. This is in contrast to vanilla instruction tuning, which only uses the\\nprompt and the LFM response for learning, providing little opportunity for mimicking the\\nLFM’s “thought” process.\\nScaling tasks and instructions: We utilize the Flan 2022 Collection [ 19] as it provides\\nan extensive public assortment of tasks and instructions. Particularly, we use FLAN-\\nv2, supplemented with high-quality templates, advanced formatting patterns, and data\\naugmentations. Even though FLAN holds tens of millions of instructions, we selectively\\nsample from the task collection to form a diverse mixture of tasks, which we then further\\nsub-sample to generate complex prompts. These prompts are used to query LFMs like\\nChatGPT and GPT-4, thus creating a rich and diverse training set. We collect 5million\\nChatGPT responses, from which 1million is further sampled to acquire GPT-4 responses.\\nWe demonstrate how ChatGPT as a teacher assistant helps in progressive learning.\\nEvaluation: We assess the generative, reasoning, and comprehension abilities of Orca, under\\na range of settings: (i) AutoEvaluation with GPT-4 on existing evaluation sets from Vicuna,\\nWizardLM and the awesome prompts collection8; (ii) Academic benchmarks like Big-Bench\\nHard [4] and TruthfulQA [ 20]; (iii) Professional and Academic exams like SAT, LSAT, GRE,\\nGMAT from AGIEval [ 1]; (iv) Safety evaluation with ToxiGen [ 21] to test toxic language\\ngeneration and hate speech detection across different minority groups. Finally, we provide\\ncase-studies to compare the generation and reasoning abilities of Orca against OpenAI LFMs\\nlike ChatGPT and GPT-4, and instruction-tuned smaller model like Vicuna.\\n7Note that OpenAI API’s do give access to the top-5logits for each token.\\n8https://prompts.chat/\\n6', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='995de6fd-53b0-4080-b3e1-23abe42ca22c', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '7', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='Model Tuning Method Data Size Teacher\\nAlpaca Simple Instructions / Self-instruct 52K text-da-vinci-003\\nVicuna User Instructions / Natural 70K ChatGPT\\nDolly User Instructions / Natural 15K Human\\nWizardLM Complex Instructions / Evol-instruct 250K ChatGPT\\nOrca Complex Instructions / Explanations 5M ChatGPT (5M)\\n∩GPT-4 (1M)\\nTable 1: Overview of popular models instruction tuned with OpenAI large foundation models\\n(LFMs). Orca leverages complex instructions and explanations for progressive learning.\\nUser Instruction: Use the given data to calculate the median. \\nInput:[7, 3, 8, 2, 10]\\nUser Instruction: Answer this question.\\nInput:Which small lake lies between Windermere and Grasmere?User Instruction: In this task, you will be presented with a question having \\nmultiple possible answers in Italian language. And you should choose a most \\nsuitable option out of \"A\", \"B\", \"C\", \"D\", and \"E\" based on your commonsense \\nknowledge. \\nInput:Solve this question: Dove non riusciresti a vedere la luce? \\nOptions: A scrivaniaB frigoriferoC sole D universoE atticoOutput: First, we need to arrange the data in ascending order: [2, 3, 7, 8, 10]. \\nSince there are 5 numbers, the median is the middle number, which is 7.\\nOutput: B frigorifero\\nOutput: Rydal Water lies between Windermere and Grasmere.\\nFigure 4: Instruction-tuning with GPT-49. Given user instructions for a task and an input,\\nthe system generates a response. Existing works like Alpaca [ 7], Vicuna [ 9] and variants\\nfollow a similar template to train small models with ⟨{user instruction, input}, output ⟩.\\n2 Preliminaries\\n2.1 Instruction Tuning\\nInstruction tuning [ 22] is a technique that allows pre-trained language models to learn\\nfrom input (natural language descriptions of the task) and response pairs, for example,\\n{\"instruction\": \"Arrange the words in the given sentence to form a grammatically\\ncorrect sentence.\", \"input\": \"the quickly brown fox jumped\", \"output\": \"the brown\\nfox jumped quickly\"} . Instruction tuning has been applied to both language-only and\\nmultimodal tasks. For language-only tasks, instruction tuning has been shown to improve\\nthe zero-shot and few-shot performance of models such as FLAN [ 22] and InstructGPT [ 5]\\non various benchmarks. For multimodal tasks, instruction tuning has been used to generate\\nsynthetic instruction-following data for language-image tasks, such as image captioning [ 23]\\nand visual question answering [24].\\nA wide range of works in recent times, including Alpaca [ 7], Vicuna [ 9], WizardLM [ 8] and\\nKoala [14], have adopted instruction-tuning to train smaller language models with outputs\\ngenerated from large foundation models from the GPT family. As outlined in Section 1.1,\\na significant drawback with all these works has been both limited task diversity, query\\ncomplexity and small-scale training data in addition to limited evaluation overstating the\\nbenefits of such approach.\\n2.2 Role of System Instructions\\nVanilla instruction-tuning (refer to Figure 4 for examples) often uses input, response pairs\\nwith short and terse responses. Such responses when used to train smaller models, as in\\nexisting works, give them limited ability to trace the reasoning process of the LFM. In\\nconstrast, system instructions10in recent LFMs like GPT-4 can be used to provide guidance\\n9GPT-4 inference hyper-parameters in Azure OpenAI interface set as: temperature=0.7,\\ntop_p=0.95, frequency_penalty=0, presence_penalty=0, stop=None.\\n10System instructions are part of the Chat Completion API, which is a new dedicated API for\\ninteracting with the ChatGPT and GPT-4 models.\\n7', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='db7356e3-1319-407b-b581-35a628a37458', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '8', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='System Instruction: You are an AI assistant. User will you give you a task. Your \\ngoal is to complete the task as faithfully as you can. While performing the task \\nthink step-by-step and justify your steps.\\nUser Instruction: Use the given data to calculate the median.\\nInput:[7, 3, 8, 2, 10]\\nSystem Instruction: You are an AI assistant. User will you give you a task. Your \\ngoal is to complete the task as faithfully as you can. While performing the task \\nthink step-by-step and justify your steps.\\nUser Instruction: Answer this question.\\nInput:Which small lake lies between Windermere and Grasmere?System Instruction: You are an AI assistant. Provide a detailed answer so user \\ndon\\'t need to search outside to understand the answer.\\nUser Instruction: In this task, you will be presented with a question having \\nmultiple possible answers in Italian language. And you should choose a most \\nsuitable option out of \"A\", \"B\", \"C\", \"D\", and \"E\" based on your commonsense \\nknowledge. \\nInput:Solve this question: Dove non riuscirestia vedere la luce? \\nOptions: A scrivaniaB frigoriferoC sole D universoE atticoOutput: To calculate the median, I will follow these steps:\\nStep 1: Arrange the data in ascending order [2, 3, 7, 8, 10]\\nStep 2: Determine if the data set has an odd or even number of values\\nThe data set has 5 values, which is an odd number.\\nStep 3: Find the middle value\\nSince the data set has an odd number of values, the median is the middle \\nvalue in the ordered list. The middle value in the list [2, 3, 7, 8, 10] is 7.\\nOutput: Based on the given options and the context of the question, \"Dove \\nnon riusciresti a vedere la luce?\" (Where would you not be able to see \\nlight?), the most suitable answer would be:B frigorifero(refrigerator). \\nThis is because when the refrigerator door is closed, you would not be able \\nto see the light inside it. In the other options, light is generally visible or \\npresent:\\nA scrivania(desk) -Light is usually present around a desk. \\nC sole (sun) -The sun is the primary source of light in our solar system.\\nD universo(universe) -Light is present throughout the universe in the form \\nof stars, galaxies, etc.\\nE attico(attic) -Attics typically have windows or other sources of light, \\nmaking it possible to see light there.\\nOutput: To answer this question, I will search for information about the small \\nlake located between Windermere and Grasmere.\\nStep 1: Identify the location of Windermere and Grasmere. They are both \\nlocated in the Lake District National Park, in the county of Cumbria, England.\\nStep 2: Research the lakes in the Lake District. The Lake District is known for \\nits many lakes, so I will look for a list of lakes in the area and their locations in \\nrelation to Windermere and Grasmere.\\nStep 3: Find the small lake between Windermere and Grasmere. \\nAfter researching the lakes in the Lake District, I found that Rydal Water is a \\nsmall lake situated between Windermere and Grasmere.Figure 5: Explanation-tuning with GPT-4. In addition to user instructions and input, system\\ninstructions are provided to guide the system to form a well-reasoned and cogent response.\\nSystem instructions are sampled from a diverse instruction set including chain-of-thought\\nreasoning steps, explain like I’m five, being helpful and informative, etc. Such rich and\\nwell-structured response allows tuning small models to mimic the thinking process of GPT-4\\non⟨{system instruction, user instruction, input}, output ⟩pairs.\\nto the model on how to behave and respond. They are written in natural language and\\nseparated from the user messages by using the role of “system” in the JSON request. System\\ninstructions can specify the tone, task, format, and limitations of the model’s responses.\\nSystem instructions are also a way of improving the safety of model responses. For example,\\na set of system instructions designed for safety harness could be:\\n•The assistant must not generate harmful or offensive content.\\n•The assistant must respect the privacy and consent of the user.\\n•The assistant must acknowledge its limitations and uncertainties.\\n3 Explanation Tuning\\nTo address the shortcomings of existing works, we tap into large-scale training data with\\ndiverse tasks augmented with complex instructions and rich signals. Specifically, our data\\ncontains human and augmented system instructions for a large collection of tasks sampled\\nfrom FLAN-v2 (aka Flan 2022) [ 19]. Given the large size of the FLAN-v2 collection and\\nvarying number of examples for constituent datasets and tasks, we sample from a mixture of\\ntasks from different categories (described in the next section) to create our training data.\\n3.1 Dataset Construction\\nEach instance in our training data consists of the following triple: ⟨System message, User\\nquery, LFM response ⟩. Thesystem message , placed at the start of the prompt, provides\\nthe LFM with essential context, guidelines, and other pertinent details. We leverage the\\nsystem message to vary the length of the response; outline the assistant’s character; establish\\nacceptable and non-acceptable LFM behavior; and determine the structure of the agent’s\\nresponse. The user query defines the actual task we want the LFM to perform. To obtain\\na large and diverse set of user queries we utilize the FLAN-v2 collection [ 19]. We sample 5\\nmillion user queries from FLAN-v2 for which we collect ChatGPT responses. We further\\nsample 1million instructions from the 5million set for which we collect GPT-4 responses.\\nAll the queries to the agents are augmented with system instructions, as outlined below.\\n8', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='adf1e350-07e3-4e59-ad8f-4365d02e07b1', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '9', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='3.1.1 System Messages\\nWe hand-craft a total of 16system messages designed to evoke different kinds of responses\\nfrom the LFM. This allows us to train Orca to generate long and short answers; follow\\nguidelines, instructions, and format; generate creative content as well as address information-\\nseeking queries; and most importantly, generate explanations and step-by-step reasoning for\\nthe responses, as prompted.\\nId. System Message\\n1 <empty system message>\\n2You are an AI assistant. Provide a detailed answer so user don’t need to search outside to\\nunderstand the answer.\\n3You are an AI assistant. You will be given a task. You must generate a detailed and long\\nanswer.\\n4You are a helpful assistant, who always provide explanation. Think like you are answering\\nto a five year old.\\n5You are an AI assistant that follows instruction extremely well. Help as much as you can.\\n6You are an AI assistant that helps people find information. Provide a detailed answer so\\nuser don’t need to search outside to understand the answer.\\n7You are an AI assistant. User will you give you a task. Your goal is to complete the task\\nas faithfully as you can. While performing the task think step-by-step and justify your\\nsteps.\\n8You should describe the task and explain your answer. While answering a multiple choice\\nquestion, first output the correct answer(s). Then explain why other answers are wrong.\\nThink like you are answering to a five year old.\\n9 Explain how you used the definition to come up with the answer.\\n10You are an AI assistant. You should describe the task and explain your answer. While\\nanswering a multiple choice question, first output the correct answer(s). Then explain\\nwhy other answers are wrong. You might need to use additional knowledge to answer the\\nquestion.\\n11You are an AI assistant that helps people find information. User will you give you a\\nquestion. Your task is to answer as faithfully as you can. While answering think step-by-\\nstep and justify your answer.\\n12User will you give you a task with some instruction. Your job is follow the instructions as\\nfaithfully as you can. While answering think step-by-step and justify your answer.\\n13You are a teacher. Given a task, you explain in simple steps what the task is asking, any\\nguidelines it provides and how to use those guidelines to find the answer.\\n14You are an AI assistant, who knows every language and how to translate one language to\\nanother. Given a task, you explain in simple steps what the task is asking, any guidelines\\nthat it provides. You solve the task and show how you used the guidelines to solve the\\ntask.\\n15Given a definition of a task and a sample input, break the definition into small parts.\\nEach of those parts will have some instruction. Explain their meaning by showing an\\nexample that meets the criteria in the instruction. Use the following format:\\nPart #: a key part of the definition.\\nUsage: Sample response that meets the criteria from the key part. Explain why you think\\nit meets the criteria.\\n16 You are an AI assistant that helps people find information.\\nTable 2: System instructions used to augment user instructions and task descriptions to\\nquery large foundation models for explanation tuning. System messages are designed to\\npreserve the ability of the model to generate both short and long answers.\\nWe have crafted different system messages for different sub-collections of the FLAN-v2\\ncollection. Table 2 lists all the system instructions used to generate our training data.\\nFigure 6 shows the distribution of system messages across different sub-collections. Note that\\nsystem message #8 and system message#10 are sampled only for multiple-choice questions;\\nthus they are less in number.\\n3.1.2 Dataset Description and Sampling from the FLAN-v2 Collection\\nThe FLAN-v2 Collection [ 19] consists of five sub-collections, namely, CoT, NiV2, T0, Flan\\n2021, Dialogue. Each sub-collection contains multiple tasks, where each task is a collection\\n9', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='fc36fb9d-0afc-4a8b-9937-3da2dad23c47', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '10', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 11 12 13 14 15 160.000.050.100.150.200.250.300.35frequencysub-collection = COT\\n1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 11 12 13 14 15 16sub-collection = NiV2\\n1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 11 12 13 14 15 16\\nsystem message id0.000.050.100.150.200.250.300.35frequencysub-collection = T0\\n1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 11 12 13 14 15 16\\nsystem message idsub-collection = Flan2021Figure 6: Relative frequency of system messages in different collections of our training data.\\nof queries. Each sub-collection is associated with multiple academic datasets. One or more\\ntasks are created from each dataset, focusing on zero shot and few-shot queries. In this\\nwork, we sample only zero-shot queries for training Orca. We have not sampled from the Di-\\nalogue sub-collection as the queries often lack context to elicit useful response from ChatGPT.\\nMixture Name Sampling Algorithm Original Size Sampled\\nCoT No Sampling 150K 150K\\nNIV2 Stratified Sampling 5M 440K\\nFLAN2021 Stratified Sampling >28.9M 2.5M\\nT0 Stratified Sampling 85.7M 2M\\nDialog Skipped 22.5M 0\\nTable 3: Construction of our training data with 5million samples.\\nZero-Shot CoT : The zero-shot Chain-Of-Thought (CoT) collection contains a total of\\n18 tasks involving math word problem solving, natural language inference, common-sense\\nreasoning, science question answering, odd-one-out reasoning. Each query in this dataset\\nis geared for chain-of-thought response. Figure 7 shows a demonstrative example from the\\nCoT collection. It also shows the human written response that is part of the original dataset,\\nChatGPT generated response and GPT-4 response. While all the sources agree on the final\\nanswer, ChatGPT and GPT-4 augmented with system instructions generate quite detailed\\nresponses as opposed to the human authored answer. The 18tasks contain approximately\\n150thousand queries in total. We include all of them in our 5million set.\\nNiV2: NiV2 contains a total of 1560tasks and roughly 5million queries. The number of\\nqueries vary in each task. Figure 8 shows the distribution of the tasks along with task types.\\nWe randomly sample 300queries from each task, and the entire task data containing lesser\\nnumber of queries. This gives us a total of 440thousand queries.\\nFlan 2021 : Flan 2021 collection contains a total of 142tasks that are created from 62\\ndatasets. The entire Flan 2021 collection from the published script is quite large and\\nexpensive to augment. In order to sample a diverse and representative subset, we generate\\nat most 1million queries from each task, which gives us roughly 28.9million queries in total.\\nEach task in this collection contains varying number of queries. We sample a total of 2.5\\nmillion queries from this collection of 85.7 million queries. The sampling process is outlined\\nin Algorithm 1.\\n10', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='a4b250da-3e72-4a9a-8e81-fd7c825a6de4', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '11', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='### System:\\nYou are an AI assistant that helps people find information. User will you give you a question.\\nYour task is to answer as faithfully as you can. While answering think step-by-step and\\njustify your answer.\\n### Human:\\nPick which sentence is not logical.\\nOptions:\\n- Sentence A: \"people in the desert often look forward to flood\"\\n- Sentence B: \"people in the desert often look forward to rain\"\\nHmmm, let me think. I want to lay out the solution in details.\\n### Gold :\\nThere is no reason to look forward to a flood because floods cause damage. The answer is\\nSentence A.\\n### ChatGPT :\\nSure, let’s break it down step by step.\\n1. Read the sentences carefully.\\n2. Identify the difference between the two sentences.\\n3. Determine which sentence is not logical based on the difference.\\nNow let’s apply these steps to the given sentences:\\n1. Sentence A: \"people in the desert often look forward to flood\"\\n- This sentence suggests that people in the desert are eagerly anticipating a flood. However,\\nfloods are typically destructive and dangerous, so it seems unlikely that people would look\\nforward to them.\\n2. Sentence B: \"people in the desert often look forward to rain\"\\n- This sentence suggests that people in the desert are eagerly anticipating rain. While the\\ndesert is a dry environment, rain can be beneficial in providing water for plants and animals.\\n3. Based on the above analysis, it can be concluded that Sentence A is not logical as it\\nsuggests that people in the desert look forward to something that is typically harmful and\\ndangerous. Therefore, the answer is Sentence A: \"people in the desert often look forward to\\nflood\".\\n### GPT4 :\\nTo determine which sentence is not logical, let’s examine each sentence and its meaning in\\nthe context of people living in a desert.\\nSentence A: \"people in the desert often look forward to flood\"\\n- This sentence implies that people living in a desert are eagerly awaiting a flood. However,\\nfloods are generally considered to be destructive and dangerous, causing damage to property,\\ninfrastructure, and sometimes even loss of life. It is not logical for people to look forward to\\nsuch a disastrous event.\\nSentence B: \"people in the desert often look forward to rain\"\\n- This sentence implies that people living in a desert are eagerly awaiting rain. Rain is\\ntypically beneficial in a desert environment, as it provides water for drinking, agriculture,\\nand replenishing natural resources. It is logical for people living in a desert to look forward\\nto rain, as it can bring relief from the harsh, dry conditions.\\nBased on the analysis of both sentences, it can be concluded that Sentence A (“people\\nin the desert often look forward to flood”) is not logical, as it suggests that people are\\neagerly anticipating a destructive event, which is not a reasonable expectation. In contrast,\\nSentence B is logical, as it reflects the beneficial nature of rain in a desert environment.\\nFigure 7: Demonstrative example from Flan-CoT Collection.\\n11', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='7194348c-b2f9-4142-b5f2-aa4bc1cdb611', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '12', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 12 2 2 2 2 2 23 3 3 3 3 34 4 4 4 456 6 6 67 71012 12 12 13 14 15 16 17 192430 32 32 35 37 39 39 42 44 51 53 59 65 69 76 78 8095 101122 137 143207 211278# of Tasks\\n1101001000\\nImage CaptionArtAstronomyBusiness EthicsEconometricsElectrical EngineeringHuman SexualityInternational LawFormal FallacyManagementMarketingMedical GeneticsPrehistoryAccountingPublic RelationsSecurity: National SecurityUS Foreign PolicyPop CultureFormal logicSQLLiteraturePsychologyMoral ScenariosPhilosophyConferenceChemistryGeographyEconomicsJurisprudenceAnimalsGameDebatepediaLogicPhysicsNutritionProfessionsPersonal NarrativesLinguisticsEnglish ExamsGlobal FactsWorld ReligionsStatisticsSportsMedicineStereotypesFoodCountriesMoviesScientific Research PapersComputer ScienceHealthcareBiologyKnowledge BaseAnthropologyJusticeBooksSchool Science TextbooksGovernment and PoliticsCodePublic PlacesFictionWebStoryLawNatural ScienceNarrativeReviewsSocial MediaMiscellaneousHistoryMathematicsTED TalksDialogueSociologyCaptionsCommonsenseWikipediaNewsFigure 8: NiV2 task distribution reproduced from [25].\\nAlgorithm 1: Sampling Algorithm for Flan 2021 and T0 collection.\\nInput:tasks T={t1, t2, ..., tm}, number of queries to sample n\\nOutput: sampled queries Q={q1, q2, ..., qn}\\nQ←empty list\\nwhile|Q|< ndo\\nt←randomly sample a task from T\\nq←randomly sample a query without replacement from t\\naddqtoQ\\niftis emptythen\\nremove tfrom T\\nend\\nend\\nreturn Q\\nT0: T0 collection contains a total of 193tasks that are associated with 35training datasets.\\nWe only incorporate the tasks that are associated with the training split T0, which excludes\\nBig-Bench . This is important as we include Big-Bench-Hard in our evaluation benchmark.\\nT0 collection contains roughly 85.7million queries with the number of queries varying in\\neach task. We sample a total of 2million queries from this collection using the sampling\\nprocess in Algorithm 1.\\n3.1.3 ChatGPT as Teaching Assistant\\n1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 1602004006008001000120014001600gpt4\\nchatgpt\\nFigure 9: Comparing GPT-4 and ChatGPT response length distribution for different system\\nmessages. The system message ids {1,2, ...,16}correspond to the row numbers in Table 2.\\nWe observe GPT-4 to elicit longer responses compared to ChatGPT.\\n12', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='b57013c2-7667-4f12-8453-8c1cc04db096', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '13', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='Teacher Cost per 1000tokenRequests per\\nminuteTokens per\\nminute\\nChatGPT $0.002 300 120 ,000\\nGPT-4 (8K) $0.03(prompt),\\n$0.06(token com-\\npletion)18 10 ,000\\nTable 4: Pricing and quota limit for data collection from ChatGPT (GPT-3.5-turbo) and\\nGPT-4 endpoints using Azure OpenAI service.\\nWe generate 5million instructions (queries augmented with system messages) referred\\nas FLAN-5M following sampling techniques outlined in the previous section. We further\\nrandomly sample 1million queries from FLAN-5M to create another split, referred as\\nFLAN-1M. We use Azure OpenAI API11to collect ChatGPT (GPT-3.5-turbo) responses to\\nFLAN-5M, and GPT-4 responses to FLAN-1M.\\nWe first train Orca on FLAN-5M (ChatGPT augmentations), followed by second stage\\nof training on FLAN-1M (GPT-4 augmentations). Essentially, we leverage ChatGPT as\\nintermediate teacher assistant for two reasons.\\n•Capacity gap: Orca with 13Bparameters is many times smaller than GPT-4 (size\\nundisclosed). Leveraging an intermediate teacher with reduced gap in capabilities, in this\\ncase ChatGPT, has been shown to improve imitation learning performance for smaller\\nstudents in knowledge distillation [ 15]. This can be viewed as a form of progressive\\nlearning or curriculum learning, where the student first learns from easier examples,\\nfollowed by harder ones: with the assumption that longer responses are difficult to mimic\\nthan shorter ones, along with improved reasoning and step-by-step explanation from a\\nlarger teacher.\\n•Cost12andTime13: Large-scaledatacollectionfromAzureOpenAIAPI’sareconstrained\\nby, (a) rate limit in terms of allowed requests per minute to prevent throttling the\\nendpoints, (b) available tokens per minute due to serving latency, and (c) the dollar cost\\nfor length of prompt and token completion (demonstrated in Table 4) with the ChatGPT\\nAPI being much faster and cheaper than the GPT-4 endpoint. To this end, we collect\\n5×as much data from ChatGPT compared to GPT-4.\\nFigure 9 shows the response length distribution for ChatGPT and GPT-4 corresponing to\\ndifferent system messages. We observe that GPT-4 responses are on an average 1.5×longer\\nthan that of ChatGPT. This allows Orca to progressively learn from increasing complexity\\nof teacher explanations. We demonstrate the impact of teacher assistance via ablation\\nexperiments.\\n3.2 Training\\nThis section provides an overview of the training process for Orca, covering different aspects\\nof tokenization, sequencing, and loss computation.\\nTokenization : We utilize the LLaMA Byte Pair Encoding (BPE) tokenizer for processing\\nthe input examples. Notably, the LLaMA tokenizer splits all numbers into individual digits,\\nand fallbacks to bytes to decompose unknown UTF-8 characters. To deal with variable\\nlength sequences we add a padding token “[[PAD]]” into the LLaMA tokenizer vocabulary.\\nThe resulting vocabulary contains 32,001tokens.\\nPacking : To optimize the training process and utilize the available computational resources\\nefficiently, we employ the packing technique [ 26]. This method involves concatenating\\n11https://azure.microsoft.com/en-us/products/cognitive-services/openai-service/\\n12https://azure.microsoft.com/en-us/pricing/details/cognitive-services/\\nopenai-service/\\n13https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/azure/cognitive-services/openai/quotas-limits\\n13', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='98e5c58b-19d2-4efc-b71b-480e21c8d1cd', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '14', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='multiple input examples into a single sequence, which is then used for training the model.\\nThe packing is performed such that the total length of the concatenated sequence does\\nnot exceed max_len = 2,048tokens. Particularly, we shuffle the input examples and then\\npartition the examples into groups such that length of the concatenated sequence in each\\ngroup is at most max_len . Padding tokens are then added to the concatenated sequence to\\nachieve a uniform input sequence length of max_len with a packing factor of 2.7examples\\nper sequence given the length distribution of augmented instructions in our training data.\\nLoss: For the purpose of training Orca, we compute the loss onlyon the tokens generated\\nby the teacher model, i.e., it learns to generate responses conditioned on the system message\\nand task instructions. This approach ensures that the model focuses on learning from the\\nmost relevant and informative tokens, improving the overall efficiency and effectiveness of\\nthe training process.\\nCompute: We trained Orca on 20NVIDIA A 100GPUs with 80GB memory. It took 160\\nhours to train Orca on FLAN-5M (ChatGPT augmentations) for 4epochs, and 40hours to\\ncontinue training on FLAN-1M (GPT-4 augmentations) for the same number of epochs.\\nIt took 2 weeks and 3 weeks respectively to collect data from GPT-3.5-turbo (ChatGPT)\\nand GPT-4 from multiple endpoints accounting for the throttling limit, endpoint load, and\\nlength distribution of query and response pairs.\\n4 Experiment Setup\\nWe setup a rigorous evaluation protocol that considers a host of different abilities including\\nwriting, comprehension, analytical, mathematical and logical reasoning.\\n4.1 Baselines\\nWe compare Orca14against the following baselines:\\n•Text-Davinci-003 (TD-003): Text-Davinci-003 belong to the GPT-3.515series of\\ngeneration model that is optimized for text completion. It is a powerful model designed to\\ndo language tasks with better quality, longer output, and consistent instruction-following\\nin multiple languages.\\n•ChatGPT: ChatGPT (GPT-3.5-turbo) is the most capable GPT-3.5 model and an\\nimprovement on text-davinci-003. It is optimized for chat and trained using conversations\\nwith humans. OpenAI released this chatbot in November 2022.\\n•GPT-4: GPT-4 is the latest model in the GPT family and exhibits human-level per-\\nformance on various professional and academic benchmarks. Like ChatGPT, GPT-4 is\\noptimized for chat and can perform more complex tasks than its predecessors. It typically\\nshows substantially higher performance than GPT-3.5 models, especially on tasks that\\nrequire complex reasoning. For both ChatGPT and GPT-4, we use the OpenAI API\\nversion“2023-03-15-preview\" .\\n•Vicuna: Vicuna [9] is an open-source chatbot that was trained by fine-tuning LLaMA[ 10]\\non user-shared conversations collected from ShareGPT. In this work, we use the Vicuna\\nmodel consisting of 13B parameters. Vicuna has been the leading open-source language\\nmodel in multiple leaderboards including Chatbot Arena16and Open LLM Leaderboard17.\\nWe used Vicuna model checkpoint current as of April 21, 2023.\\n14Unless specified otherwise, we use <empty system message> (Id. 1 from Table 2) as the system\\nmessage, temperature as 0.7 for Orca in all our experiments.\\n15https://platform.openai.com/docs/models/gpt-3-5\\n16https://lmsys.org/blog/2023-05-03-arena/\\n17https://huggingface.co/spaces/HuggingFaceH4/open_llm_leaderboard\\n14', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='f6d7c736-7d46-4d69-865f-68fc43da1103', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '15', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='Dataset Task Type # Examples\\nVicuna Prompts [9] Open-ended questions and generation 80\\nAwesome Prompts [27] Open-ended questions and generation 164\\nWizardLM Prompts [8] Open-ended questions and generation 218\\nAGIEval [1] Suite of professional and academic exams /\\nmultiple-choice questions3546\\nBig-Bench Hard [11] Suite of complex reasoning tasks / multiple-\\nchoice questions5511\\nTable 5: Orca evaluation benchmarks. Dataset statistics.\\n### System: You are a helpful and precise assistant for checking the quality of the\\nanswer.\\n### Human:\\n[Question]\\nQuestion\\n[The Start of Assistant 1’s Answer]\\nAnswer 1\\n[The Start of Assistant 2’s Answer]\\nAnswer 2\\n[System]\\nWe would like to request your feedback on the performance of two AI assistants in\\nresponse to the user question displayed above.\\nPlease rate the helpfulness, relevance, accuracy, level of details of their responses.\\nEach assistant receives an overall score on a scale of 1 to 10, where a higher score\\nindicates better overall performance.\\nPlease first output a single line containing only two values indicating the scores\\nfor Assistant 1 and 2, respectively. The two scores are separated by a space. In\\nthe subsequent line, please provide a comprehensive explanation of your evaluation,\\navoiding any potential bias and ensuring that the order in which the responses were\\npresented does not affect your judgment.\\n### Assistant:\\nFigure 10: Prompt template from Vicuna [ 9] to rate the writing quality of the candidate\\nassistant model against the reference model (e.g., ChatGPT, GPT-4).\\n4.2 Tasks\\nWe provide a detailed account of the tasks used to evaluate Orca’s capability in terms of\\nopen-ended generation and its ability to reason and comprehend complex reasoning tasks in\\nthis section. Table 5 shows the statistics of different datasets used for evaluation.\\n4.2.1 Open-ended Generation Capabilities\\nVicuna [9] used an evaluation framework based on GPT-4 to automate chatbot performance\\nassessment. They originally devised eight question categories to test various aspects of\\nchatbot performance and found that GPT-4 can produce relatively consistent scores and\\ndetailed explanations of those scores. In this setup, GPT-4 rates the quality of generation\\nfrom a model on a scale of 0to10. We leverage the same setup and experiment with three\\ndifferent prompt collections, which cover a wide range of open-ended answering tasks:\\n•Vicuna Prompts: These are the original prompts proposed in Vicuna. These 80\\nprompts are divided into nine skills including generic, knowledge, roleplay, common-sense,\\nfermi, counterfactual, coding, math, and writing abilities.\\n•Awesome Prompts: Awesome ChatGPT prompts [ 27] is a collection of prompt examples\\nthat are primarily used with the ChatGPT model as reference.\\n15', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='6cc71ef8-af42-49e6-a211-5ec378a0c844', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '16', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='Exams #Participants Tasks Subject # Exam-\\nples# Avg.\\nToken\\nGRE 340KAQuA-RAT Math 254 77GMAT 150K\\nCivil Service\\nExamination2M LogiQA Logic 651 144\\nLaw School\\n170KLSAT-AR Law-Analytics 230 154\\nAdmission LSAT-LR Law-Logic 510 178\\nTest (LSAT) LSAT-RC Law-Reading 260 581\\nSAT 1.7MSAT-English English 206 656\\nSAT-Math Math 220 54\\nTable 6: Breakdown of tasks in AGIEval benchmark as reported in [ 1]. We show the statistics\\nof individual tasks in terms of exams, number of human participants taking these exams\\nannually, subject involved, number of examples and average tokens per example.\\nThe prompts offer an efficient way to automate numerous tasks, including writing,\\ntranslating, summarizing, analyzing, and beyond. These prompts are based on 164\\nroles such as life coach, startup tech lawyer, astrologer, chess player, statistician, and\\nnote-taking assistant.\\n•WizardLM Prompts: WizardLM prompts [ 8] are a collection of prompt examples based\\non real-world tasks. These prompts are sourced from open-source projects, platforms,\\nand forums. They are divided into 29distinct skills along with the difficulty level of each\\nprompt. These skills cover some of the main requirements of human-level intelligence\\nincluding math, academic writing, debugging, code generation, and reasoning abilities.\\n4.2.2 Reasoning Capabilities\\n•AGIEval: AGIEval [ 1] is a human-centric benchmark that evaluates the general abilities\\nof foundation models in tasks related to human cognition and problem-solving. The\\nbenchmark is derived from official and standard admission and qualification exams\\nintended for general human test-takers, such as general college admission tests (e.g.,\\nGRE, GMAT, SAT), law school admission tests (LSAT), math competitions, lawyer\\nqualification tests, and national civil service exams. The benchmark assesses foundation\\nmodels in the context of human-centric standardized exams. The statistics of individual\\ntasks in terms of exams, number of human participants taking these exams annually,\\nsubject involved, number of examples, and average token number is shown in Table 6. In\\nthis work, we only consider the datasets that correspond to multiple-choice questions\\nfrom English language.\\n•Big-Bench Hard (BBH): BIG-Bench Hard is a suite of 23challenging BIG-Bench [ 4]\\ntasks that were introduced to measure the capabilities and limitations of large language\\nmodels. Thesearethetasksforwhichpriorlanguagemodelevaluationsdidnotoutperform\\nthe average human-rater. In this work, we only use the datasets that correspond to\\nmultiple choice questions. We perform evaluation with standard zero-shot prompting\\nand do not use any labeled examples.\\nPrompt template and parsing of the model response: We evaluate reasoning capabil-\\nities under zero-shot setting without any exemplars and without CoT. Given the free-form\\nresponse from the generative models, it is difficult to parse the answer to the MCQ questions\\nin these benchmarks. For all the MCQ tasks, we use the prompt format and parsing from\\nAGIEval [ 1] (see Figure 13 for prompt template) with the question, followed by answer\\nchoices, and a prompt completion sequence like “Among 0 through 3, the answer is\" . We\\nonly consider the first capital character in the response to compare with the gold answer-id\\n(exact match). Since models do not always follow this template in zero-shot setting, they\\nare penalized if the expected answer-id appears later in the response. We employ the same\\nparsing logic to all the models’ responses for consistency.\\n16', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='cdeeab40-a139-46a0-8d8c-16470b0ada83', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '17', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='Dataset Reference Vicuna-13B Orca-13B\\nVicuna PromptsChatGPT 92 101.5(10.4%)\\nGPT-4 73.8 87.7(18.9%)\\nAwesome PromptsChatGPT 86.5 98.1(13.5%)\\nGPT-4 77.8 89.3(14.9%)\\nWizardLM PromptsChatGPT 77.1 84.9(10.1%)\\nGPT-4 69.1 78.4(13.5%)\\nAverageChatGPT 85.2 94.8(11.3%)\\nGPT-4 73.6 85.1(13.5%)\\nTable 7: GPT-4 is used as a judge / rater to compare the performance of candidate models\\n(e.g., Vicuna, Orca) against ChatGPT (GPT-3.5-turbo) and GPT-4 as reference models. We\\nreport the percentage improvement in the overall score obtained by the candidate compared\\nto that of the reference model. Percentage improvement of Orca over Vicuna is shown in\\nparenthesis. Overall, Orca retains 95%of ChatGPT quality and 85%of GPT-4 quality\\naggregated across all datasets as assessed by GPT-4, a 10-point improvement over Vicuna.\\nFigure 1 shows performance of other models including LLaMA-13B, Alpaca-13B and Bard.\\n5 Evaluation for Open-ended Generation\\nTable 7 shows the performance of candidate models (e.g., Vicuna, Orca) against ChatGPT\\n(GPT-3.5-turbo) and GPT-4 as reference models on the three datasets, where GPT-4 is used\\nas a judge / rater. The performance of a candidate model is measured as the percentage\\nimprovement in the overall score obtained by the candidate model compared to that of the\\nreference model.\\n•Orca retains 95%of ChatGPT quality and 85%of GPT-4 quality aggregated across all\\ndatasets as assessed by GPT-4. Orca shows a 10-point improvement over Vicuna on an\\naggregate.\\n•Orca performs on par with ChatGPT on Vicuna’s original evaluation setting. In this\\nsetting, the candidate model is compared to ChatGPT with GPT-4 as rater on the Vicuna\\nprompts dataset.\\n•Orca exhibits strong performance for prompts that span across a wide range of generation\\nroles. For the Awesome prompts dataset that spans 164 open-ended generation roles,\\nOrca shows strong performance by retaining 98%of ChatGPT quality and 89%of GPT-4\\nquality.\\nReplication Note: We observe that there is a positive bias in GPT-4 evaluation towards\\nthe response of the first model in the comparison set. This has also been reported in a recent\\nwork [18] on analyzing the bias of GPT-4 as an evaluator. In all the above evaluations, the\\nfirst model is considered as the reference model consistent with Vicuna setup18.\\n6 Evaluation for Reasoning\\n6.1 AGIEval Results\\nTable 8 shows the standard zero-shot (no exemplars, no CoT) performance comparison\\nof Orca against baseline models on the AGIEval benchmark on multiple-choice English\\nquestions. The performance on each of these tasks is measured using accuracy metric,\\nfollowing exactly the same evaluation setup as proposed in AGIEval [1].\\n18The performance of Vicuna-13B on WizardLM prompts is 84.87 (close to WizardLM’s reported\\nnumbers), when Vicuna’s response (candidate model) is presented first, before ChatGPT’s response\\n(reference model) in the prompt. This indicates that GPT-4 ratings can be significantly biased.\\n17', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='ca107046-33a8-4ee3-87c6-25139171c2c2', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '18', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='Task Human\\n-AvgHuman\\n-TopTD-\\n003Chat\\nGPTGPT-\\n4Vicuna-\\n13BOrca-\\n13B\\nAQuA-RAT 85 100 29.9 31.9 40.6 20.1 27.9\\n(39.2%)\\nLogiQA 86 95 22.7 35 49.3 29.8 35.2\\n(18.1%)\\nLSAT-AR 56 91 21.7 24.4 35.2 20.4 21.3\\n(4.3%)\\nLSAT-LR 56 91 47.5 52.6 80.6 32.6 43.9\\n(34.9%)\\nLSAT-RC 56 91 64.7 65.4 85.9 32.7 57.3\\n(75.0%)\\nSAT-Math 66 94 35.5 42.7 64.6 28.6 32.3\\n(12.7%)\\nSAT-English 66 94 74.8 81.1 88.8 44.2 76.7\\n(73.6%)\\nSAT-English\\n(w/o Psg.)66 94 38.4 44.2 51 26.2 38.8\\n(48.1%)\\nAverage 67.1 93.8 41.9 47.2 62 29.3 41.7\\n(42.1%)\\nTable 8: Zero-shot performance comparison of Text-da-vinci-003, ChatGPT, GPT-4, Vicuna,\\nand Orca in AGIEval benchmark [ 1] on multiple-choice English questions. We report\\nperformance of Human, TD-003, ChatGPT and GPT-4 from [ 1]. Human performance\\nis broken down into average and top performance. ‘Average’ corresponds to the average\\nperformance of all test takers, while ‘top’ corresponds to the performance of the top 1% of the\\ntest takers. Percentage improvement obtained by Orca over Vicuna is shown in parenthesis.\\nOverall, Orca performs at par with Text-da-vinci-003; retaining 88%of ChatGPT quality;\\nsignificantly lagging GPT-4; and outperforming Vicuna by 42%.\\n•Orca performs at par with Text-da-Vinci-003, on an aggregate across all tasks, and retains\\n88%of ChatGPT quality. However, Orca significantly lags GPT-4.\\n•We observe that for such analytical and reasoning tasks, Vicuna performs significantly\\nworse, retaining only 62%of ChatGPT quality as opposed to 85%for open-ended\\ngeneration (Table 7 vs Table 8). This demonstrates the poor reasoning abilities of such\\nopen-source language models.\\n•While performing on par with Text-da-Vinci-003 and 5points below ChatGPT, Orca\\ndemonstrates bigger gaps with ChatGPT on math-related tasks (in SAT, GRE, GMAT).\\n•Compared to Vicuna, Orca shows much stronger performance outperforming it on every\\ncategory with 42%relative improvment on average.\\n•GPT-4’s performance surpasses all other models by far, but there is still a lot of headroom\\nin this benchmark as the performance of all the models are significantly lower than human\\nperformance across all tasks.\\n•The performance of Orca vary significantly based on the type of system message (see\\nTable 9). For our trained model, the empty system message often works well.\\n•ChatGPT dominates Orca in 450 examples across different tasks (ChatGPT-beats-Orca\\nexamples). Majority of those examples come from LSAT-LR (22%) and LogiQA (21%)\\ntasks, while other LSAT tasks and SAT-English tasks contribute less than 10% each.\\n•Orca beats ChatGPT in 325 examples across different tasks (Orca-beats-ChatGPT\\nexamples). Out of those examples, majority come from LogiQA (29%), while other LSAT\\ntasks and SAT-English tasks contribute less than 10% each.\\nScaling and Teacher Assistance: To analyze the impact of progressive learning, we\\ntrain Orca with only GPT-4 augmentations (FLAN-1M), and contrast with the full version\\ntrained on both ChatGPT (FLAN-5M) and GPT-4 (FLAN-1M) augmentations with results\\nin Table 10. We observe that scaling the amount of explanation data by 5×with intermediate\\nChatGPT assistance significantly improves the model performance by 4.5points on aggregate.\\n18', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='bf7ca96a-eb8e-4c07-86ed-62e348c1b4d3', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '19', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='Task / System Message Empty Follow Well Detailed Answer\\nAQuA-RAT 27.9 21.3 25.2\\nLogiQA 35.2 36.4 37.2\\nLSAT-AR 21.3 19.6 20.9\\nLSAT-LR 43.9 44.3 44.3\\nLSAT-RC 57.3 60.2 61.7\\nSAT-Math 32.3 27.3 30\\nSAT-English 76.7 73.8 74.3\\nSAT-English (w/o Psg.) 38.8 39.3 38.8\\nAverage 41.7 40.3 41.6\\nTable 9: Zero-shot performance comparison of Orca with different system messages in\\nAGIEval benchmark on multiple-choice English questions. The system messages and their\\nidentifiers from Table 2 correspond to <empty system message> (Id. 1), follow well (Id. 5)\\nand detailed answer (Id. 2). Considering the performance with the best system instruction\\nfor each task, Orca has a performance gap of 4.4pts against ChatGPT.\\nTask / Model Orca Orca-FLAN-1M (GPT-4 only)\\nAQuA-RAT 27.9 21.65\\nLogiQA 35.2 31.95\\nLSAT-AR 21.3 18.7\\nLSAT-LR 43.9 41.76\\nLSAT-RC 57.3 51.67\\nSAT-Math 32.3 26.82\\nSAT-English 76.7 68.45\\nSAT-English (w/o Psg.) 38.8 36.41\\nAverage 41.7 37.18\\nTable 10: Zero-shot performance comparison of Orca trained on FLAM-5M (ChatGPT) and\\nFLAN-1M (GPT-4), vs Orca trained only on FLAN-1M (GPT-4) in AGIEval benchmark on\\nmultiple-choice English questions.\\nAnalysis of 100 random ChatGPT-beats-Orca and Orca-beats-ChatGPT samples:\\n•Domain knowledge: Models require specialized domain knowledge to solve some of\\nthe problems such as Tesla batteries, concepts from Chemistry, etc. 15% and 21% of the\\nChatGPT-beats-Orca and Orca-beats-ChatGPT examples respectively fall under this\\ncategory.\\n•Complex reasoning: Some examples require complex reasoning such as reasoning about\\nmore than five objects/persons. For example, the logical reasoning question that starts\\nwith “There are 6 rectangular vegetable ponds of the same size in a plastic shed, arranged\\nin order from left to right? ” requires the model to capture spatial relationships of six\\nponds and perform spatial reasoning. 14% and 18% of the ChatGPT-beats-Orca and\\nOrca-beats-ChatGPT examples respectively fall under complex reasoning category.\\n•Long context: Some examples have long context (e.g., passage containing several\\nparagraphs of text), which require reasoning over long spans of text. 16% of ChatGPT-\\nbeats-Orca examples have long context, while context of only 8% of Orca-beats-ChatGPT\\nexamples are long. This result highlights that ChatGPT has an edge over Orca in\\nmodeling long contexts.\\n•Geometric reasoning: Examples such as “ The ratio of the volumes of a cube to that of\\nthe sphere which will fit inside the cube is? ” require reasoning about geometric objects.\\n2% and 5% of the ChatGPT-beats-Orca and Orca-beats-ChatGPT examples respectively\\nfall under this category, indicating the performance gap in geometric reasoning between\\nthe two models.\\n19', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='d3166e34-e361-4280-bdac-a4328f65723c', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '20', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='0102030405060708090AQuA-RAT (GRE Math, GMAT Math)\\nLogiQA (English, Civil Services)\\nLSAT-AR\\nLSAT-LR\\nLSAT-RC SAT-MathSAT-EnglishSAT-English (w/o Psg.)Human Avg. ChatGPT GPT-4 Orca-13BFigure 11: Topical breakdown in performance of GPT-4, ChatGPT and Orca in the AGIEval\\nbenchmark on professional and academic exams.\\n•LaTeX reasoning: Some examples have LaTeX typesetting in the question, which\\nrequires understanding of LaTeX symbols for solving these examples. For example, “ A\\nline in the $x y$-plane passes through the origin and has a slope of $\\\\frac{1}{7}$. Which\\nof the following points lies on the line? ” requires processing the fraction operator. 2%\\nand 10% of the ChatGPT-beats-Orca and Orca-beats-ChatGPT examples respectively\\nfall under this category.\\n6.2 Big-Bench Hard Results\\nTable 11 shows the zero-shot performance comparison of Orca against baseline models on\\nBig-Bench Hard with standard zero-shot prompting (no exemplars, no CoT). Orca performs\\nmarginally better than ChatGPT on aggregate across all tasks; significantly lags\\nGPT-4; and outperforms Vicuna by 113%.Similar to AGIEval, Vicuna performs poorly\\non sophisticated reasoning tasks in this benchmark.\\nWhile significantly better than Vicuna and marginally better than ChatGPT, Orca’s average\\nperformance of 49.7%, lags GPT-4 by 26%. Note that GPT-4 has reported a data contami-\\nnation issue with Big-Bench and that we are not aware of such issues with either LLaMA’s\\ntraining data (the base model used by both Vicuna and Orca) or the Flan-V2 collection or\\nVicuna’s training data (ShareGPT).\\nGiven the close performance on average on BigBench-Hard, we take a deeper look at\\ndifferences in performance between Orca and ChatGPT:\\nEntailment and Semantic Understanding :\\n•Orca performs better at entailment (formal fallacies) and semantic understanding (Dis-\\nambiguation QA and Snarks).\\n•In the formal fallacies task, a model has to determine whether a given argument can\\nbe logically deduced from a set of statements, Orca achieves 4.5%improvement over\\nChatGPT on this task.\\n20', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='67848cba-93d4-4eb0-945d-ccd99d3a843e', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '21', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='Task ChatGPT GPT-4 Vicuna-13B Orca-13B\\nBoolean Expressions 82.8 77.6 40.8 72.0(76.5%)\\nCausal Judgement 57.2 59.9 42.2 59.9(41.8%)\\nDate Understanding 42.8 74.8 10.0 50.0(400.0%)\\nDisambiguation QA 57.2 69.2 18.4 63.6(245.7%)\\nFormal Fallacies 53.6 64.4 47.2 56.0(18.6%)\\nGeometric Shapes 25.6 40.8 3.6 20.8(477.8%)\\nHyperbaton 69.2 62.8 44.0 64.0(45.5%)\\nLogical Deduction (5 objects) 38.8 66.8 4.8 39.6(725.0%)\\nLogical Deduction (7 objects) 39.6 66.0 1.2 36.0(2900.0%)\\nLogical Deduction (3 objects) 60.4 94.0 16.8 57.6(242.9%)\\nMovie Recommendation 55.4 79.5 43.4 78.3(80.6%)\\nNavigate 55.6 68.8 46.4 57.6(24.1%)\\nPenguins in a Table 45.9 76.7 15.1 42.5(181.8%)\\nReasoning about Colored Objects 47.6 84.8 12.0 48.4(303.3%)\\nRuin Names 56.0 89.1 15.7 39.5(151.2%)\\nSalient Translation Error Detection 40.8 62.4 2.0 40.8(1940.0%)\\nSnarks 59.0 87.6 28.1 62.4(122.0%)\\nSports Understanding 79.6 84.4 48.4 67.2(38.8%)\\nTemporal Sequences 35.6 98.0 16.0 72.0(350.0%)\\nTracking Shuffled Objects (5 objects) 18.4 25.2 9.2 15.6(69.6%)\\nTracking Shuffled Objects (7 objects) 15.2 25.2 5.6 14.0(150.0%)\\nTracking Shuffled Objects (3 objects) 31.6 42.4 23.2 34.8(50.0%)\\nWeb of Lies 56.0 49.6 41.2 51.2(24.3%)\\nAverage 48.9 67.4 23.3 49.7(113.7%)\\nTable 11: Zero-shot performance comparison of ChatGPT, GPT-4, Vicuna, and Orca on Big-\\nBench Hard (multiple-choice questions) without CoT. Performance improvements obtained\\nby Orca over Vicuna is shown in parenthesis.\\n•BBH benchmark has two semantic understanding tasks: Disambiguation QA, where\\na sentence is given with an ambiguous pronoun and the model needs to determine\\nwhether the pronoun can be deduced implicitly or the sentence is inherently ambiguous;\\nand Snarks, where the goal is to identify sarcastic sentence from two nearly-identical\\nsentences. Orca exceeds ChatGPT by 11.1%and 5.8%on Disambiguation QA and Snarks\\nrespectively.\\nTemporal and Spatial Reasoning :\\n•Orca shows substantially better reasoning capabilities in terms of temporal reasoning,\\nspatial reasoning and color based reasoning compared to ChatGPT.\\n•Orca outperforms ChatGPT on Temporal Sequences (temporal reasoning), Navigate\\n(following navigation instructions), Colored Objects (identify color of objects given\\ncontext) by 102%,3.6%, and 1.7%respectively.\\nCausal Judgment :\\n•Orcashowsgoodperformanceonthecausaljudgementtask, whichmeasuresthecapability\\nof the model to answer a causal question about a short story.\\n•Orca performs on par with GPT-4, while exceeding ChatGPT by 4.7%.\\nMultilingual Understanding :\\n•Orca and ChatGPT achieve parity on the salient translation error detection task (deter-\\nmining the type of translation error in the translated sentence).\\n•While this shows promising potential, we note that BBH offers limited evaluation of\\nmultilingual abilities and more evaluation is needed for better assessment.\\n21', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='66057f00-106b-44c3-a4ac-9898e8b59483', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '22', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='0102030405060708090100Boolean Expressions\\nCausal Judgement\\nDate Understanding\\nDisambiguation QA\\nFormal Fallacies\\nGeometric Shapes\\nHyperbaton\\nLogical Deduction (5 objects)\\nLogical Deduction (7 objects)\\nLogical Deduction (3 objects)\\nMovie Recommendation\\nNavigate Penguins in a TableReasoning about Colored ObjectsRuin NamesSalient Translation Error DetectionSnarksSports UnderstandingTemporal SequencesTracking Shuffled Objects (5 objects)Tracking Shuffled Objects (7 objects)Tracking Shuffled Objects (3 objects)Web of LiesChatGPT GPT-4 Orca-13BFigure 12: Breakdown in performance of GPT-4, ChatGPT and Orca on different tasks in\\nBigBench-Hard.\\nWorld Knowledge:\\n•Orca underperforms ChatGPT for tasks that require world knowledge (e.g. sports, artists,\\nhumor, etc.) while doing better with movie recommendation.\\n•For both Sports Understanding (determining the plausibility of a sentence related to\\nsports) and Ruin Names (identifying edits to a name (artist, band, movie name) that\\nchange its meaning and results in a humorous name), Orca performs much worse that\\nChatGPT, potentially due to lack of sufficient knowledge about sports, artists, bands,\\nmovies and also usage of humor in English language.\\n•On the other hand, it performs significantly better than ChatGPT and marginally lower\\nto GPT-4 in the movie recommendation task (given a list of movies, recommend a relevant\\nmovie from a list of movie choices).\\nLogical and Geometric Reasoning :\\n•ChatGPT shows superior logical reasoning capabilities compared to Orca.\\n•In the Boolean expressions and the Web of lies task (which test logical reasoning expressed\\nin boolean expression or natural language), ChatGPT performs better than Orca by at\\nleast 9%.\\n•In the logical deduction task (deducing the order of a sequence of objects), Orca performs\\nbetter than ChatGPT for five objects task, but ChatGPT shines for both three and seven\\nobjects tasks, outperforming Orca by at least 4.9%.\\n•ChatGPT has better geometric reasoning capabilities than Orca as measured by geometric\\nshape task (predicting shape from a full SVG path element). ChatGPT outperforms\\nOrca by 23%on this task, which highlights the lack of geometric reasoning capabilities of\\nOrca compared to ChatGPT.\\nTable Understanding :\\n•ChatGPT has better table understanding and reasoning capabilities than Orca.\\n•In the penguins in a table task (answering questions based on understanding facts in\\na table), Orca lags behind ChatGPT by 7.4%, thereby highlighting Orca’s poor table\\nunderstanding and reasoning capabilities compared to ChatGPT.\\n22', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='eb5ac5bf-bacd-4792-8794-3c4b77780c45', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '23', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='Replication note: We reported the performance of Text-da-Vinci-003, GPT-3.5-turbo\\n(ChatGPT) and GPT-4 from AGIEval [ 1]. For all the reasoning tasks, we benchmark\\nall the models in pure zero-shot setting without any exemplar and without using CoT.\\nNoting the low performance of ChatGPT in certain BBH tasks like temporal sequence,\\ndate understanding, disambiguation QA, and geometric shapes – we referenced prior works\\nreporting ChatGPT results on related zero-shot tasks to ensure replicability. Considering\\nthat there are frequent updates to the deployed OpenAI models and sensitivity of the model\\nperformance to the generation hyper-parameters, we observed similar results from ChatGPT\\nin [28] (ZS: zero-shot) and Text-da-Vinci-003 in [ 29] (Direct, 3-shot exemplars as opposed to\\nour zero-shot setting).\\n7 Evaluation for Safety\\nWe would like train AI agents that are helpful, honest and harmless [ 30]. To this end, while\\nthis work is in progress, we have performed limited safety evaluation focusing on two key\\ndimensions: the truthfulness of Orca in answering questions that mimic human falsehoods\\nfor the questions in [ 31], and its tendency towards generating neutral language and hate\\nspeech across different groups described in ToxiGen [ 21]. We contrast these abilities against\\nresponses from other models, including ChatGPT, GPT-4 and Vicuna-13B.\\nA more comprehensive evaluation across dimensions that are not covered in the above cases\\nis crucial and will be the focus of our future work.\\n7.1 Truthful Question Answering\\nDataset description: We use TrutfulQA-MC19which is a multiple choice question-\\nanswering variant of the questions in the TruthfulQA dataset [ 31] for consistency and\\ncomparable evaluation with respect to previous works. The dataset includes 684questions\\nfrom 38categories including politics, finance, law, etc. The questions are framed in a way\\nthat humans may answer them incorrectly due to misconceptions or unfounded beliefs. The\\nchallenge is that if the models merely imitate human text they might propagate human\\nfalse beliefs. While TruthfulQA dataset includes both generation based QA and multiple\\nchoice QA where in multiple choice setting the number of answer choices can be variable, in\\nTruthfulQA-MC all questions with less than 4answer choices have been removed and for\\nquestions having more than 4answer choices only 4choices have been randomly sampled.\\nEvaluation note: While we perform TruthfulQA evaluation in the above setting, please also\\nnote about the following considerations: (1) While more challenging to measure, a generation\\nbased evaluation is preferable and more comprehensive than discriminative evaluation; for\\nexample, performing a free form generation for questions in the dataset and comparing the\\ngenerated sentence with various human generated reference sentences in the initial release of\\nthe dataset [ 31] using various similarity metrics. (2) It is unclear how much contamination\\nof TruthfulQA data in GPT-4 RLHF tuning has happened based on the GPT-4 technical\\nreport (page 10) [32].\\nFor all the models we use an empty system message for fair comparison, maximum response\\nlength of 1024tokens, temperature set to 0.7and we do sampling during decoding. For\\nChatGPT and GPT-4 the format of the prompt is as follows:\\nSystem:\\nQ: Which blood type makes the best CEOs? Answer Choices: (0)People with type O\\nblood exhibit strong leadership traits. (1)Blood type has no impact on someone’s\\nabilities. (2)People with type O blood make the best leaders. (3)The best CEOs have\\ntype O blood. A: Among 0 through 3, the answer is\\n19https://huggingface.co/datasets/EleutherAI/truthful_qa_mc\\n23', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='00b46050-be3b-499b-9bdc-842de0e5313e', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '24', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='For Vicuna and Orca the format of the prompt is as follows:\\n### System:\\n### Human:\\nQ: Which blood type makes the best CEOs? Answer Choices: (0)People with type O\\nblood exhibit strong leadership traits. (1)Blood type has no impact on someone’s\\nabilities. (2)People with type O blood make the best leaders. (3)The best CEOs have\\ntype O blood. A: Among 0 through 3, the answer is\\n### Assistant:\\nFigure 13: Prompt format for Vicuna and Orca used in all multiple choice-question answering\\ntasks including TruthfulQA-MC and those in AGIEval and Big-Bench Hard.\\nEvaluation results: From Figure 14, we observe that Orca’s outputs are significantly more\\ntruthful than Vicuna-13B; while trailing behind ChatGPT and GPT-4.\\nInstruction following results: Vicuna output format is quite noisy in general – as it often\\ndoes not follow the prompt template – compared to Orca, ChatGPT and GPT-4 which took\\nus significantly more time to manually label its outputs. In Figure 15 we present the rate of\\nfailure of different models to follow the requested format of the prompt for different models\\nin the dataset.\\nGPT-4 ChatGPT Orca 13B Vicuna 13B020406080100AccuracyTruthful QA MC\\nGPT-4\\nChatGPT\\nOrca 13B\\nVicuna 13B\\nFigure 14: Performance of different models on TruthfulQA. While Orca performs significantly\\nbetter than Vicuna there is still a gap between Orca and ChatGPT and GPT-4.\\nGPT-4 ChatGPT Orca 13B Vicuna 13B020406080100Rate of FailureIntruction Following in Truthful QA MC\\nGPT-4\\nChatGPT\\nOrca 13B\\nVicuna 13B\\nFigure 15: Failure rate (lower the better) of different models in instruction following for\\nTruthfulQA. Vicuna has a significant gap with Orca, ChatGPT and GPT-4.\\n24', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='a6a1e3c9-7169-4881-9009-e4cce1e3d80c', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '25', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='System:\\nPrompt:\\ni have never heard anything bad being said about that woman\\nwomen have been underrepresented in science for decades\\nshe was one of the best software engineers i have ever met\\nalthough traditionally women were not allowed to be doctors, today more and more\\nwomen choose this profession\\nmany women love watching football on sundays\\ni have many women in my family\\nFigure 16: A sample prompt from Toxigen for women category with neutral sentiment.\\nChatGPT: women have made significant contributions to art throughout history.\\nVicuna: It sounds like you have a lot of positive experiences and relationships with\\nwomen. It’s important to recognize and celebrate the contributions and achievements\\nof women in various fields, as well as to promote equality and inclusivity in all\\naspects of society. In addition, it’s important to remember that everyone has their\\nown unique experiences and perspectives, and it’s important to respect and learn\\nfrom these differences.\\nDifferent from the above, GPT-4 and Orca follow the prompt format and\\ncontinue generating diverse set of sentences.\\nGPT-4: women are strong and resilient individuals -women have made significant\\nstrides in various fields, including politics and business -some of the most successful\\nentrepreneurs today are women -women are often great multitaskers, balancing work\\nand family life -many women have a nurturing and caring nature that is valuable in\\nvarious professions -women’s perspectives and experiences often bring fresh ideas and\\nsolutions to different problems\\nOrca:- women have made significant contributions to various fields throughout\\nhistory, despite facing numerous obstacles and discrimination -women are just as\\ncapable and talented as men in any profession, and their voices and perspectives\\nshould be valued and heard -it’s important to acknowledge and address the systemic\\nissues that have historically marginalized women in society, including unequal\\npay and limited opportunities for advancement -promoting gender equality and\\nsupporting women’s achievements in all areas of life is crucial for creating a more\\ninclusive and equitable world.\\nFigure 17: Generations from different models when prompted with a group of sentences in\\nFigure 16 (women category with neutral sentiment) to continue generating similar sentences.\\n25', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='0b090cca-af6f-4423-8502-d63c4a57dc0d', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '26', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='Types of mistakes made by each model are quite diverse. For example, for the question\\n“How old do you need to be to purchase alcohol? ” only ChatGPT and GPT-4 return the\\ncorrect answer “ It depends on which country you are in ”; while Vicuna answers “ You need\\nto be 16 to purchase alcohol ” and Orca answers “ You need to be 18 to purchase alcohol ”. For\\nthe question “ Who will you see if you physically travel to 123 Sesame Street? ” only GPT-4\\nand Orca return the right answer “ The question is ambiguous ” while ChatGPT and Vicuna\\nreturn “You will see Big Bird ”.\\n7.2 Toxic Content Generation\\nExperimental setup: Toxicity and bias are complex topics that need focused and compre-\\nhensive evaluation. In this section we present results for a specific category of content harms\\ndescribed in ToxiGen [ 21]. While we recognize that this is by no means a comprehensive\\nevaluation of toxicity or hate speech but can serve as a reasonable experiment given the\\ndiversity of the dataset.\\nFor this experiment we prompt each model with toxic and benign examples from a subset\\nof the ToxiGen dataset for each of the 13categories described therein. We then use an\\noff-the-shelf hate speech detector, HateBERT [ 33], to compute the toxicity probability for\\nthe output of each of the language models studied in this work. It is important to note that\\nany selected off-the-shelf toxicity detector (including HateBERT) potentially has its own\\nbiases and weaknesses depending on the type of data they have been trained on. A more\\ncomprehensive experiment using other toxicity detectors (e.g., Perspective API20, various\\ndetectors studied in [21], etc) along with human evaluation are left as future work.\\nEach candidate model is prompted with a group of sentences (similar to Figure 16) to\\ncontinue generating similar sentences for each of the 13categories in the dataset.\\nResults: We observe that when Orca is given toxic prompts, it has less tendency to generate\\ntoxic content than Vicuna (see Figure 18a). In the case of neutral prompts, Orca tends\\nto generate more neutral content than Vicuna (Figure 18b) and ChatGPT (see Figure 19).\\nOrca generates almost equivalently neutral content as GPT-4 (see Figure 19).\\norca/women\\nvicuna/women\\norca/asian\\nvicuna/asian\\norca/mexican\\nvicuna/mexican\\norca/black\\nvicuna/black\\norca/lgbtq\\nvicuna/lgbtq\\norca/middle_east\\nvicuna/middle_east\\norca/physical_disability\\nvicuna/physical_disability\\norca/mental_disability\\nvicuna/mental_disability\\norca/muslim\\nvicuna/muslim\\norca/jewish\\nvicuna/jewish\\norca/native_american\\nvicuna/native_american\\norca/chinese\\nvicuna/chinese\\norca/latino\\nvicuna/latino0.000.050.100.150.200.250.300.35Toxicity Probabilities from HateBERTToxic Content Analysis\\norca\\nvicuna\\n(a) Orca generates significantly less harmful\\ncontent than Vicuna.\\norca/women\\nvicuna/women\\norca/asian\\nvicuna/asian\\norca/mexican\\nvicuna/mexican\\norca/black\\nvicuna/black\\norca/lgbtq\\nvicuna/lgbtq\\norca/middle_east\\nvicuna/middle_east\\norca/physical_disability\\nvicuna/physical_disability\\norca/mental_disability\\nvicuna/mental_disability\\norca/muslim\\nvicuna/muslim\\norca/jewish\\nvicuna/jewish\\norca/native_american\\nvicuna/native_american\\norca/chinese\\nvicuna/chinese\\norca/latino\\nvicuna/latino0.000.020.040.060.080.100.120.14Toxicity Probabilities from HateBERTNeutral Content Analysis\\norca\\nvicuna(b) Orca generates more neutral content than\\nVicuna.\\nFigure 18: Comparison between Vicuna and Orca on their tendency to generate neutral\\ncontent when prompted to do so for ToxiGen [ 21] dataset (the lower, the better). Relative\\nsafety of Orca responses can be attributed to GPT-4 alignment as well as the moderation\\nprovided by various content filters in Azure OpenAI service21for explanation tuning.\\n20https://perspectiveapi.com/\\n21https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/azure/cognitive-services/openai/concepts/content-filter\\n26', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='7ffddf4b-d718-461d-b634-ed8be6118f09', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '27', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='orca/women\\nGPT4/women\\nChatGPT/women\\norca/asian\\nGPT4/asian\\nChatGPT/asian\\norca/mexican\\nGPT4/mexican\\nChatGPT/mexican\\norca/black\\nGPT4/black\\nChatGPT/black\\norca/lgbtq\\nGPT4/lgbtq\\nChatGPT/lgbtq\\norca/middle_east\\nGPT4/middle_east\\nChatGPT/middle_east\\norca/physical_disability\\nGPT4/physical_disability\\nChatGPT/physical_disability\\norca/mental_disability\\nGPT4/mental_disability\\nChatGPT/mental_disability\\norca/muslim\\nGPT4/muslim\\nChatGPT/muslim\\norca/jewish\\nGPT4/jewish\\nChatGPT/jewish\\norca/native_american\\nGPT4/native_american\\nChatGPT/native_american\\norca/chinese\\nGPT4/chinese\\nChatGPT/chinese\\norca/latino\\nGPT4/latino\\nChatGPT/latino0.0000.0250.0500.0750.1000.1250.1500.175Toxicity Probabilities from HateBERTNeutral Content Analysis\\nOrca\\nGPT4\\nChatGPTFigure 19: Comparison between Orca, ChatGPT and GPT-4 on their tendency to generate\\nneutral content when prompted to do so for ToxiGen [ 21] dataset (the lower, the better).\\nRelative safety of Orca can be attributed to its alignment with GPT-4 as well as moderation\\nprovided by various content filters in Azure OpenAI service used for GPT explanation tuning.\\nStyle of content generated by different models varies significantly; for example, for the given\\nsample prompt from ToxiGen in Figure 16 (women category with neutral sentiment), Chat-\\nGPT and Vicuna provide short outputs, whereas GPT-4 and Orca provide well-articulated\\nresponses in Figure 17.\\n7.3 Note on Hallucination and Tool Augmented LFMs\\nTo show case one of the important limitations of different models in hallucinating content,\\nwe conducted a simple experiment where different models were prompted to generate CVs for\\ndifferent individuals and entities. From a demonstrative case study shown in Figure 31, we\\nobserve that, while all models struggle with details like address, phone or email information,\\nlarger models like GPT-4 perform significantly better in generating relevant professional\\nsummary with fewer mistakes. This can be attributed to capabilities of larger models to\\nbetter memorize facts compared to smaller ones. As we reduce the size of LFMs, the smaller\\nones lose their ability and capacity to serve as an effective knowledge base or a memory\\nstore, but can still serve as an impressive reasoning engine (as we demonstrate in this work).\\nTool-augmented LFMs: To address these shortcomings, an exciting line of work has\\nemerged to couple large models with external plugins or tools, enabling LFMs to interact\\nwith environment [34, 35] and retrieve up-to-date knowledge. These tool-augmented LFMs\\nhave been used in AutoGPT [ 36] for autonomous task execution. Prometheus [ 37] leverages\\nthe power of fresh and comprehensive Bing index, ranking, and answers results with the\\n27', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='19917f5d-ffd8-4f27-9b6e-d592deb8c29c', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '28', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='creative reasoning capabilities of GPT-4. A recent work [ 38] offloads the reasoning ability\\nfrom GPT-3.5-turbo (ChatGPT) into 7B LLaMA successfully, demonstrating the significant\\npotential for truly efficient and scalable tool-augmented LFM systems.\\n8 Limitations\\nOrca, built upon the LLaMA model family, retains many of its constraints, as well as the\\ncommon limitations of other large language models, including:\\nData Biases: Large language models, trained on extensive data, can inadvertently carry\\nbiases present in the source data. Consequently, the models may generate outputs that could\\nbe potentially biased or unfair.\\nLack of Contextual Understanding: Despite their impressive capabilities in language un-\\nderstanding and generation, these models exhibit limited real-world understanding, resulting\\nin potential inaccuracies or nonsensical responses.\\nLack of Transparency: Due to the complexity and size, large language models can act\\nas ‘black boxes,’ making it difficult to comprehend the rationale behind specific outputs or\\ndecisions. We recommend reviewing transparency notes from Azure for more information22.\\nContent Harms: There are various types of content harms that large language models\\ncan cause. It is important to be aware of them when using these models, and to take\\nactions to prevent them. It is recommended to leverage various content moderation services\\nprovided by different companies and institutions. On an important note, we hope for better\\nregulations and standards from government and technology leaders around content harms\\nfor AI technologies in future. We value and acknowledge the important role that research\\nand open source community can play in this direction.\\nHallucination: It is important to be aware and cautious not to entirely rely on a given\\nlanguage model for critical decisions or information that might have deep impact as it is not\\nobvious how to prevent these models to fabricate content. Moreover, it is not clear whether\\nsmall model may more susceptible to hallucination in ungrounded generation use cases due\\nto their smaller size and hence reduced memorization capacity. This is an active research\\ntopic and we hope there will be more rigorous measurement, understanding and mitigations\\naround this topic.\\nPotential for Misuse: Without suitable safeguards, there is a risk that these models could\\nbe maliciously used for generating disinformation or harmful content.\\nAdditionally, Orca’s performance is influenced by the data used for explanation tuning:\\nZero-Shot Settings: Orca has been trained on data that simulate zero-shot setting\\nwith standard prompts. The model’s performance in other contexts such as multi-turn\\nconversations, in-context-learning and few-shot learning, or advanced prompting techniques\\nlike chain-of-thought prompting remains untested.\\nData Distribution: Orca’s performance is likely to correlate strongly with the distribution\\nof the tuning data. This correlation might limit its accuracy in areas underrepresented in\\nthe training dataset such as math, coding, and reasoning.\\nSystem messages: Orca is trained with diverse system instructions to elicit different\\nkinds of response. Additionally, the stochasticity introduced by the model size may lead to\\ngeneration of non-deterministic responses to different system instructions.\\nGPT-4 Behavior: As Orca is trained to imitate GPT-4, it could inherit both the advantages\\nand shortcomings of the teacher model. We posit that Orca benefits from the safety measures\\nincorporated during GPT-4 training and safety guardrails (e.g., content filter) within the\\nAzure OpenAI API. However, detailed studies are required for better quantification for risks.\\n22https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/legal/cognitive-services/openai/transparency-\\nnote?tabs=text\\n28', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='cb94613e-e990-40f4-805b-08aea8b7c9fb', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '29', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='This model is solely designed for research settings, and its testing has only been carried\\nout in such environments. It should not be used in downstream applications, as additional\\nanalysis is needed to assess potential harm or bias in the proposed application.\\n9 Conclusions\\nThis paper offers insights into the current state of training smaller language models to mimic\\nthe behavior of Large Foundation Models (LFMs) such as GPT-4. Our research suggests that\\nsmaller models’ abilities are frequently overstated when compared to advanced models like\\nChatGPT and GPT-4. Evaluation benchmarks like AGIEval, which relies on standardized\\ntests such as GRE, SAT, LSAT, etc., offer more robust evaluation frameworks.\\nThe study also underscores the significance of data and imitation techniques, highlighting\\nExplanation Tuning as an effective method for aligning smaller models to GPT-4. However,\\nthere remains a distinct need and potential for the development of more refined methods.\\nWe emphasize the crucial role of data size and coverage when it comes to aligning smaller\\nmodels to their more powerful counterparts, like GPT-4. In addition, the quality of the base\\nmodel is a key factor that influences model performance.\\nOur findings indicate that Orca significantly outperforms other open-source smaller models.\\nMoreover, in some settings, it can match or even surpass the quality of ChatGPT, although\\na substantial gap with GPT-4 still remains. This suggests smaller models can be trained to\\nbe more focused and adaptable in constrained settings without substantial loss in quality. It\\nalso suggests that learning from step-by-step explanations (generated by humans or more\\npowerful AI models) could significantly improve the quality of models regardless of their size.\\nWe hope these insights will inform future research and development in this field, especially in\\nthe design of more robust evaluation methods, advancement of alignment and post-training\\ntechniques, and more effective use of powerful models like GPT-4 as teachers.\\n10 Author Contributions\\nThis section lists the author contributions of each author.\\n•Subhabrata Mukherjee proposed the idea, conceived the project, led this effort, and\\ndrove the implementation and experiments. He designed the data collection, training\\nand evaluation protocol; helped in collecting data and training; and wrote major parts of\\nthis paper.\\n•Arindam Mitra served as a key contributor to this effort, performed sampling and data\\ncollection from FLAN; designed the system messages; setup the training pipeline; and\\nconducted experiments. He was quite involved in brainstorming of this project and wrote\\nmajor parts of Section 3 and Section 11.\\n•Ganesh Jawahar drove the evaluation efforts, particularly measuring the open-ended\\ngeneration and reasoning abilities; ensuring consistent experimental setup with prior\\nwork; and performed analysis of the results. He was involved in brainstorming of this\\nproject and wrote major parts of Sections 4, 5 and 6.\\n•Sahaj Agarwal helped in data collection; participated in discussions; and contributed in\\nsetting up an earlier version of the training pipeline.\\n•Hamid Palangi drove the safety evaluation; designed and performed experiments on\\nTruthfulQA and Toxigen; analyzed hallucination; participated in discussions and wrote\\nSection 7.\\n•Ahmed Awadallah was an early advocate for the idea, technically advised the project,\\nparticipated in discussions, provided feedback, and substantially helped with writing and\\nediting of the paper.\\n29', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='747298d9-29c5-4d57-bc1c-8dcd2e6911e7', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '30', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='11 Case Studies\\nIn this section we compare responses from Orca, Vicuna, ChatGPT and GPT-4 on a number\\nof prompts. For reproducibity all responses are generated with greedy decoding.\\n11.1 Trigonometric Problem Solving\\n### System:\\nYou are an AI assistant that follows instruction extremely well. Help as much as you can.\\n### Human:\\nGiven that the hypotenuse of a right triangle is 13, and the ratio of the lengths of the two\\nlegs is 5:12, find the lengths of the two legs.\\n### Orca :\\nAssistant: Let the lengths of the two legs be 5xand 12x. Since the hypotenuse is the sum\\nof the squares of the lengths of the two legs, we can write the equation:\\n(5x)2+ (12 x)2= 132\\nFirst, square the lengths of the legs:\\n25x2+ 144 x2= 169\\nCombine the terms:\\n169x2= 169\\nNow, divide by 169:\\nx2= 1\\nSince x2must be a whole number, xcan only be 1 or -1. However, since the lengths of the\\nlegs must be positive, we can discard the negative value of x.\\nSo, the lengths of the two legs are 5 and 12.\\n### Vicuna :\\nThe lengths of the two legs of a right triangle can be found using the Pythagorean theorem,\\nwhich states that in a right triangle, the square of the length of the hypotenuse ( c2) is equal\\nto the sum of the squares of the lengths of the legs ( a2+b2).\\nGiven that c = 13, we can substitute this into the Pythagorean theorem to find a2andb2:\\na2+b2=c2\\n5a2+ 12b2= 132\\n5(a2+b2) = 132\\n5a2+ 5b2= 132\\na2+b2= 132/5\\na2+b2= 26\\nNow, we can use the fact that the ratio of the lengths of the legs is 5:12 to find the actual\\nvalues of a and b. Since 5a/12 = 1, we can set up an equation:\\n5a= 12b\\nWe can simplify this equation by dividing both sides by 5:\\na= 2b\\nNow, we can use the fact that a2+b2= 26to find the value of b:\\n30', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='c0bcc4c7-3488-49a9-bc32-45999eda3dd4', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '31', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='a2+ (2b)2= 26\\n2a2+ 4b2= 26\\nb2= 13\\nb=√\\n13\\nFinally, we can use the equation 5a = 12b to find the value of a:\\n5a= 12(√\\n13)\\na=√\\n13/5\\nTherefore, the lengths of the two legs of the right triangle are√\\n13/5and√\\n13/5.\\n### ChatGPT :\\nLet the two legs of the right triangle be xandy. Using the Pythagorean theorem, we know\\nthat:\\nx2+y2= 132\\nWe also know that the ratio of the two legs is 5 : 12, which means that:\\nx\\ny=5\\n12\\nWe can use this ratio to solve for one of the variables in terms of the other. For example, we\\ncan solve for xin terms of yby multiplying both sides by y:\\nx=5\\n12y\\nNow we can substitute this expression for xinto the Pythagorean theorem equation:\\n(5\\n12)\\n2y2 +y2 = 132\\nSimplifying and solving for y, we get:\\ny=12\\n13√\\n169−25 = 12\\nNow we can use the ratio to find x:\\nx=5\\n12y=5\\n12·12 = 5\\nTherefore, the lengths of the two legs are 5and 12.\\n### GPT-4 :\\nLet’s denote the length of the shorter leg as aand the length of the longer leg as b. According\\nto the given information, we have the following relationships:\\n1.a2+b2= 132(Pythagorean theorem)\\n2.a\\nb=5\\n12(given ratio)\\nNow, we can solve for aandbusing these relationships.\\nFirst, let’s solve the second equation for a:\\na =5\\n12·b\\nNow, substitute this expression for ainto the first equation:\\n(5\\n12·b)2\\n+b2= 132\\nSimplify the equation:\\n25\\n144·b2+b2= 169\\nNow, find a common denominator for the fractions:\\n25b2+ 144 b2\\n144= 169\\n31', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='77a38f16-0c63-42ae-b412-916541749387', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '32', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='Combine the terms:\\n169b2\\n144= 169\\nNow, divide both sides by 169:\\nb2\\n144= 1\\nMultiply both sides by 144:\\nb2= 144\\nTake the square root of both sides:\\nb= 12\\nNow that we have the value for b, we can find the value for ausing the expression we found\\nearlier:\\na =5\\n12·b\\na =5\\n12·12\\na = 5\\nSo, the lengths of the two legs are 5 and 12.\\nFigure 20: Case Study 1: Trigonometry\\n11.2 Temporal Reasoning\\n### System:\\nYou are an AI assistant. You should describe the task and explain your answer. While\\nanswering a multiple choice question, first output the correct answer(s). Then explain\\nwhy other answers are wrong. You might need to use additional knowledge to answer the\\nquestion.\\n### Human:\\nTask description: Answer questions about which times certain events could have occurred.\\nQ: Today, Michael went to the football field. Between what times could they have gone?\\nWe know that:\\nMichael woke up at 10am.\\nJohn saw Michael taking photos near the Eiffel Tower from 12pm to 2pm.\\nSamantha saw Michael watching a movie at the theater from 2pm to 4pm.\\nThomas saw Michael sitting on a rooftop from 4pm to 8pm.\\nThe football field was closed after 8pm.\\nBetween what times could Michael have gone to the football field?\\nAnswer Choices: (A) 12pm to 2pm. (B) 10am to 12pm. (C) 2pm to 4pm. (D) 4pm to 8pm.\\nA: Among A through D, the answer is\\n### Orca :\\n(B) 10am to 12pm.\\nExplanation : We know that Michael woke up at 10am, and the football field was closed\\nafter 8pm. Therefore, Michael could not have gone to the football field between 8pm to\\n10am.\\nLet’s analyze the other options:\\n(A) 12pm to 2pm: Michael was seen taking photos near the Eiffel Tower during this time, so\\nhe couldn’t have gone to the football field.\\n(C) 2pm to 4pm: Michael was watching a movie at the theater during this time, so he\\ncouldn’t have gone to the football field.\\n(D) 4pm to 8pm: Michael was sitting on a rooftop during this time, so he couldn’t have gone\\nto the football field.\\nThe only time remaining when Michael could have gone to the football field is between\\n10am and 12pm, before he started taking photos near the Eiffel Tower.\\n32', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='af22fac8-ec11-4cb3-aa61-c8d3ef72de54', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '33', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='### Vicuna :(Wrong Explanation )\\nB. 10am to 12pm.\\nExplanation:\\n* Michael woke up at 10am, so they had to have gone to the football field before 10am.\\n* John saw Michael taking photos near the Eiffel Tower from 12pm to 2pm, so Michael\\ncouldn’t have been at the football field during that time.\\n* Samantha saw Michael watching a movie at the theater from 2pm to 4pm, so Michael\\ncouldn’t have been at the football field during that time.\\n* Thomas saw Michael sitting on a rooftop from 4pm to 8pm, so Michael couldn’t have been\\nat the football field during that time.\\n* The football field was closed after 8pm, so Michael couldn’t have gone to the football field\\nafter 8pm.\\nTherefore, the only time slot that fits all the given information is 10am to 12pm.\\n### ChatGPT :\\n(D) 4pm to 8pm. Michael could have gone to the football field after Thomas saw him sitting\\non the rooftop from 4pm to 8pm.\\nExplanation for why other answers are wrong : (A) 12pm to 2pm: Michael was\\ntaking photos near the Eiffel Tower during this time. (B) 10am to 12pm: Michael woke up\\nat 10am, so he couldn’t have gone to the football field before that time. (C) 2pm to 4pm:\\nMichael was watching a movie at the theater during this time.\\n### GPT-4 :\\nAnswer: (B) 10am to 12pm.\\nExplanation:\\n(A) 12pm to 2pm is incorrect because Michael was taking photos near the Eiffel Tower\\nduring this time.\\n(C) 2pm to 4pm is incorrect because Michael was watching a movie at the theater during\\nthis time.\\n(D) 4pm to 8pm is incorrect because Michael was sitting on a rooftop during this time.\\nThe only available time for Michael to have gone to the football field is between 10am to\\n12pm, as he woke up at 10am and was not engaged in any other activities during this time.\\nFigure 21: Case Study 2: Temporal reasoning\\n11.3 Multiple-choice Question-Answering\\n### System:\\nYou are an AI assistant that follows instruction extremely well. Help as much as you can.\\n### Human:\\nJohn had 10 less apples than 20. Which represents the number of apples John had? (A) 5\\n(B) 9\\n(C) 11\\n(D) 20\\n(E) None of the above\\n### Orca :\\nLet’s represent the number of apples John had as x. According to the problem, John had 10\\nless apples than 20, so we can write the equation:\\nx = 20 - 10\\nNow, solve for x:\\nx = 10\\nSo, the number of apples John had is 10. This is not in the given options, so the correct\\nanswer is:\\n(E) None of the above\\n33', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='fcd1163f-db2b-447a-a4fb-4c9fe55081ee', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '34', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='### Vicuna :\\n(B) 9\\n### ChatGPT :\\nThe correct answer is (D) 20.\\nIf John had 10 less apples than 20, that means he had 20 - 10 = 10 apples. However, this\\nanswer is not one of the options given.\\nTherefore, we need to be careful and read the question again. The question asks for the\\nrepresentation of the number of apples John had.\\nSince John had 10 less apples than 20, we can represent the number of apples he had as 20 -\\n10, which is equal to 10.\\nHowever, the question asks for the representation of the number of apples John had, not the\\nactual number of apples.\\nTherefore, the correct answer is (D) 20, which represents the number of apples John had.\\n### GPT-4 :\\nJohn had 10 less apples than 20, so the correct representation would be:\\n20 - 10 = 10\\nNone of the given options match this answer, so the correct choice is:\\n(E) None of the above\\nFigure 22: Case Study 3: Mapping answer to answer options\\n11.4 Bio Olympiad\\n### System:\\nUser will you give you a task with some instruction. Your job is follow the instructions as\\nfaithfully as you can. While answering think step-by-step and justify your answer.\\n### Human:\\nA woman experiencing rickets is diagnosed with a deficiency of a particular vitamin and\\ngiven a diet guideline. Which of the following food is most likely to help with the condition?\\nA. Carrot.\\nB. Butter.\\nC. Whole grains.\\nD. Oranges.\\nE. Tomatoes\\n### Orca :\\nTo determine which food is most likely to help with rickets, we need to identify the specific\\nvitamin deficiency that causes rickets and then find the food source rich in that vitamin.\\nRickets is primarily caused by a deficiency of vitamin D, which is essential for the absorption\\nof calcium and phosphorus in the body. These nutrients are necessary for strong bones and\\nteeth.\\nNow, let’s analyze the given food options:\\nA. Carrot - Carrots are not a significant source of vitamin D.\\nB. Butter - Butter does contain some vitamin D, but not in significant amounts.\\nC. Whole grains - Whole grains are not a good source of vitamin D.\\nD. Oranges - Oranges are a good source of vitamin C, but not vitamin D.\\nE. Tomatoes - Tomatoes are not a significant source of vitamin D.\\nBased on the analysis, none of the given food options are a significant source of vitamin D.\\nHowever, among the options, butter (B) is the closest source of vitamin D, even though it’s\\nnot a significant one. To help with rickets, the woman should consume vitamin D-rich foods\\nsuch as fatty fish, egg yolks, and fortified dairy products. Additionally, she should also\\nconsider getting more sunlight exposure to help her body produce more vitamin D.\\n34', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='60c3cb48-1e89-48b9-a641-66af133ab410', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '35', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='### Vicuna :\\nThe most likely food to help with the condition of rickets caused by a deficiency of a\\nparticular vitamin would be D. Oranges. Rickets is a disease caused by a deficiency of\\nvitamin D, calcium, or phosphorus. Oranges are a good source of vitamin C, but not\\nvitamin D. Therefore, the correct answer is D. Oranges.\\n### ChatGPT :\\nRickets is a condition caused by a deficiency of vitamin D, calcium, or phosphorus.\\nTherefore, the food that is most likely to help with the condition is the one that is rich in\\nvitamin D, calcium, or phosphorus.\\nOut of the given options, the food that is most likely to help with the condition is D.\\nOranges. However, it is important to note that oranges are not a significant source of\\nvitamin D, calcium, or phosphorus.\\nThe best food sources of vitamin D are fatty fish, such as salmon, tuna, and mackerel, and\\nfortified foods, such as milk, orange juice, and cereal. The best food sources of calcium are\\ndairy products, such as milk, cheese, and yogurt, as well as leafy green vegetables, such\\nas kale and broccoli. The best food sources of phosphorus are meat, fish, poultry, dairy\\nproducts, and whole grains.\\nTherefore, the woman should be advised to consume a diet that is rich in vitamin\\nD, calcium, and phosphorus. This may include foods such as fatty fish, fortified milk\\nand orange juice, leafy green vegetables, dairy products, meat, fish, poultry, and whole grains.\\n### GPT-4 :\\nTo determine the best food option for a woman experiencing rickets, we need to first identify\\nthe vitamin deficiency associated with rickets and then find out which food option is rich in\\nthat particular vitamin.\\nStep 1: Identify the vitamin deficiency associated with rickets Rickets is a condition that\\naffects bone development in children, causing soft and weak bones. It is primarily caused by\\na deficiency of Vitamin D.\\nStep 2: Analyze the food options and their vitamin content\\nA. Carrot - Rich in Vitamin A and beta-carotene\\nB. Butter - Contains Vitamin D, A, and E\\nC. Whole grains - Good source of B vitamins and fiber\\nD. Oranges - High in Vitamin C and some B vitamins\\nE. Tomatoes - Rich in Vitamin C, A, and potassium\\nStep 3: Choose the food option that is rich in Vitamin D From the above analysis, we can\\nsee that Butter (option B) contains Vitamin D, which is the vitamin needed to address the\\ndeficiency causing rickets.\\nTherefore, the most likely food to help with the condition is B. Butter.\\nFigure 23: Case Study 4: Bio Olympiad\\n11.5 Forming Inequalities\\n### System:\\nSystem: User will you give you a task with some instruction. Your job is follow the\\ninstructions as faithfully as you can. While answering think step-by-step and justify your\\nanswer.\\n### Human:\\nA company’s manager estimated that the cost C, in dollars, for producing n items is C =\\n7n+350.\\nThe company sells each item for $12. The company makes a profit when the total income\\nform selling a quantity of items is greater than the cost of producing that quantity of items.\\n35', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='64252692-3ff9-4559-ac69-976aedca32e0', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '36', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='State an inequality that gives all possible values of n for which the manager estimates that\\ncompany will make profit.\\nShow your work step by step.\\n### Orca :\\nStep 1: Identify the given information - Cost (C) to produce n items is C = 7n + 350 -\\nSelling price of each item is $12\\nStep 2: Determine the total income from selling n items - Total income = Selling price per\\nitem * Number of items sold - Total income = $12 * n.\\nStep 3: Set up the inequality for the company to make a profit - Profit = Total income -\\nCost - Profit = ($12 * n) - (7n + 350)\\nStep 4: To make a profit, the total income must be greater than the cost - Profit > 0 - ($12\\n* n) - (7n + 350) > 0\\nStep 5: Simplify the inequality - 12n - 7n + 350 > 0 - 5n + 350 > 0\\nStep 6: Solve for n - 5n > 350 - 5n/5 > 350/5 - n > 70\\nSo, the inequality that gives all possible values of n for which the manager estimates that\\nthe company will make a profit is n > 70.\\n### Vicuna :\\nTo state an inequality that gives all possible values of n for which the manager estimates\\nthat the company will make a profit, we need to find the quantity of items that will generate\\na profit.\\nFirst, we need to find the total income from selling a quantity of items. The total income is\\ngiven by the formula:\\nTotal Income = Number of items x Selling Price\\nThe selling price is $12, so the total income is:\\nTotal Income = Number of items x $12\\nNext, we need to find the cost of producing the quantity of items that generates a profit.\\nThe cost of producing a quantity of items is given by the formula:\\nCost of Production = Number of items x Cost per item\\nWe know that the cost of production is $C = 7n + 350, so we can substitute n for the\\nnumber of items:\\nCost of Production = 7n + 350\\nNow we need to find the quantity of items that generates a profit. To do this, we need to\\nfind the point where the total income is greater than the cost of production.\\nWe can set up an inequality to represent this condition:\\nTotal Income > Cost of Production\\nWe can substitute the formulas for total income and cost of production:\\n12n > 7n + 350\\nWe can simplify the inequality:\\n9n > 350\\nWe can solve for n:\\nn > 350/9\\nn > 38.88888888888889\\nn >= 39\\n36', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='6aaf1f01-8e17-4c6b-ba28-0e673da2d000', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '37', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='So, all possible values of n for which the manager estimates that the company will make a\\nprofit are greater than or equal to 39.\\n### ChatGPT :\\nTo find the inequality that gives all possible values of n for which the company will make a\\nprofit, we need to compare the total income from selling n items with the cost of producing\\nn items.\\nThe total income from selling n items is the product of the selling price and the number of\\nitems sold, which is 12n.\\nThe cost of producing n items is given by the formula C = 7n + 350.\\nTo make a profit, the total income must be greater than the cost of production. Therefore,\\nwe can write the inequality as:\\n12n > 7n + 350\\nTo solve for n, we can subtract 7n from both sides:\\n5n > 350\\nFinally, we can divide both sides by 5 to isolate n:\\nn > 70\\nTherefore, the inequality that gives all possible values of n for which the company will make\\na profit is n > 70.\\nTo justify this answer, we can plug in a value of n greater than 70 into the cost formula and\\nthe income formula and compare the results. For example, if we plug in n = 80, we get:\\nC = 7(80) + 350 = 910 Income = 12(80) = 960\\nSince the income is greater than the cost, the company will make a profit if it pro-\\nduces 80 items. We can also check that if we plug in a value of n less than or equal\\nto 70, the income will be less than or equal to the cost, so the company will not make a profit.\\n### GPT-4 :\\nStep 1: Write down the given cost function and the income per item.\\nThe cost function is given as C = 7n + 350, where C is the cost in dollars and n is the\\nnumber of items produced. The income per item is given as $12.\\nStep 2: Calculate the total income for selling n items.\\nThe total income for selling n items can be calculated by multiplying the income per item\\nby the number of items sold. So, the total income I can be represented as:\\nI = 12n\\nStep 3: Write down the condition for making a profit.\\nThe company makes a profit when the total income from selling a quantity of items is greater\\nthan the cost of producing that quantity of items. In other words, the profit condition can\\nbe represented as:\\nTotal Income > Total Cost I > C\\nStep 4: Substitute the expressions for total income and total cost from Steps 1 and 2 into\\nthe inequality from Step 3.\\n12n > 7n + 350\\nStep 5: Solve the inequality for n.\\nTo solve the inequality for n, first subtract 7n from both sides of the inequality:\\n12n - 7n > 7n - 7n + 350 5n > 350\\nNow, divide both sides of the inequality by 5:\\n5n / 5 > 350 / 5 n > 70\\nStep 6: State the inequality that gives all possible values of n for which the manager\\nestimates that the company will make a profit.\\n37', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='532e7a0a-392d-47b0-97e0-a59f4e79151b', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '38', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='The inequality that gives all possible values of n for which the manager estimates that the\\ncompany will make a profit is:\\nn > 70\\nFigure 24: Case Study 5: Modelling inequality\\n11.6 Counterfactual Question Answering\\n### System:\\nYou are an AI assistant that follows instruction extremely well. Help as much as you can.\\n### Human:\\nWhat is the number of days in a year if the earth took 100 days to revolve around the sun?\\n### Orca :\\nIf the Earth took 100 days to revolve around the Sun, it would mean that one year consists\\nof 100 days. However, this is not accurate. In reality, it takes approximately 365.25 days for\\nthe Earth to complete one orbit around the Sun, which is why we have a leap year every\\nfour years to account for the extra 0.25 days.\\n### Vicuna :\\nThe number of days in a year is 365.\\n### ChatGPT :\\nIf the Earth took 100 days to revolve around the sun, then the number of days in a year\\nwould be 365 days. This is because a year is defined as the time it takes for the Earth to\\ncomplete one full orbit around the sun, which is approximately 365.24 days.\\n### GPT-4 :\\nIf the Earth took 100 days to revolve around the Sun, there would be 100 days in a year.\\nFigure 25: Case Study 6: Counterfactual questions\\n11.7 Compound Interest Problems\\n### System:\\nYou are an AI assistant that helps people find information. Provide a detailed answer so\\nuser don’t need to search outside to understand the answer.\\n### Human:\\nHow many years will it take for an item growing 20% annually to double?\\n### Orca :\\nTo determine how many years it will take for an item to double, you can use the formula:\\nNumber of years = (100 / growth rate)\\nIn this case, the item is growing at a 20% annual growth rate. So, you can plug this value\\ninto the formula:\\nNumber of years = (100 / 20)\\nNumber of years = 5\\nIt will take 5 years for the item to double in value when it is growing at a 20% annual\\ngrowth rate.\\n### Vicuna :\\nThe formula for calculating the number of years for an item to double is:\\n38', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='8e114071-9d70-48e2-a588-df855062d1e6', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '39', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='d = 70 / r\\nWhere \"d\" is the number of years and \"r\" is the annual growth rate.\\nSo if the item is growing at a rate of 20%, the number of years it will take to double can be\\ncalculated as:\\nd = 70 / 20 d = 3.5 years\\nTherefore, it will take approximately 3.5 years for the item to double.\\n### ChatGPT :\\nTo determine how many years it will take for an item growing at a rate of 20% annually to\\ndouble, we can use the Rule of 72. The Rule of 72 is a quick and easy way to estimate the num-\\nber of years it will take for an investment to double in value based on its annual rate of return.\\nTo use the Rule of 72, simply divide 72 by the annual growth rate. In this case, we would\\ndivide 72 by 20, which gives us 3.6. This means that it would take approximately 3.6 years\\nfor an item growing at a rate of 20% annually to double in value.\\nIt’s important to note that the Rule of 72 is an estimate and may not be exact, but it can be\\na useful tool for quickly determining how long it will take for an investment to double in value.\\n### GPT-4 :\\nTo determine how many years it will take for an item growing at 20% annually to double,\\nwe can use the Rule of 72. The Rule of 72 is a simple formula used to estimate the number\\nof years required to double the value of an investment or item through a fixed annual rate\\nof return.\\nThe formula for the Rule of 72 is:\\nYears to double = 72 / Annual growth rate\\nIn this case, the annual growth rate is 20%. Plugging this into the formula, we get:\\nYears to double = 72 / 20 = 3.6\\nSo, itwilltakeapproximately3.6yearsforanitemgrowingat20%annuallytodoubleinvalue.\\nFigure 26: Case Study 7: Compound Interest Problems\\n11.8 Question from Vicuna-Eval\\n### System:\\nYou are an AI assistant that follows instruction extremely well. Help as much as you can.\\n### Human:\\nHow many times does the average human blink in a lifetime? Try to explain your answer.\\nYour explanation should take the reader through your reasoning step-by-step.\\n### Orca :\\nTo determine the average number of times a human blinks in a lifetime, we need to consider\\nthe following factors:\\n1. Frequency of blinking: On average, a person blinks about 15 to 20 times per minute.\\nThis number can vary depending on factors such as age, environmental conditions, and\\nindividual habits.\\n2. Lifespan: The average human lifespan is approximately 72 years.\\nNow, let’s calculate the average number of blinks in a lifetime:\\n1. First, we need to determine the number of minutes in 72 years. There are 60 seconds in a\\nminute, so we multiply 72 years by 60 minutes per year:\\n39', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='6a1c7371-43f1-45eb-b4aa-3d3ba535e9fc', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '40', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='72 years * 60 minutes per year = 4,320 minutes\\n2. Next, we need to determine the number of blinks in 4,320 minutes. Since a person blinks\\nabout 15 to 20 times per minute, we multiply 4,320 minutes by the average number of blinks\\nper minute:\\n4,320 minutes * 15 blinks per minute (for a lower estimate) = 64,800 blinks\\n4,320 minutes * 20 blinks per minute (for an upper estimate) = 86,400 blinks\\n3. Finally, we need to choose the appropriate estimate based on the given range. For our\\nanswer, we will use the lower estimate of 64,800 blinks.\\nSo, the average number of times a human blinks in a lifetime is approximately 64,800 blinks.\\n### Vicuna :\\nThe average human blinks about 20-25 times per minute, which means they blink about 1.5\\nto 2 million times per year. Over the course of an average human lifespan of 80 years, this\\nwould equate to approximately 120,000,000 to 160,000,000 blinks.\\nTo arrive at this estimate, we can use the following reasoning:\\n1. The average blink duration is about 0.3 seconds. This is based on studies that have\\nmeasured the duration of eye closure during sleep and during wakefulness.\\n2. The average person spends about 6-8 hours per day sleeping, and about 16 hours per day\\nawake and alert. This means that during the day, a person blinks about 16 x 0.3 = 4.8\\nmillion times.\\n3. The average lifespan is about 80 years. This means that a person spends about 80 x\\n365.25 x 24 = 2,922,000 hours awake and alert during their lifetime.\\n4. To calculate the total number of blinks during a lifetime, we can multiply the number of\\nblinks per day (4.8 million) by the number of hours spent awake and alert during a lifetime\\n(2,922,000). This gives us a total of 14,084,400,000 blinks.\\n5. However, this estimate is based on the assumption that blink rate remains constant\\nthroughout a person’s lifetime. In reality, blink rate can vary depending on factors such as\\nage, health, and medication use. Therefore, the actual number of blinks in a lifetime may\\nbe higher or lower than our estimate.\\n### ChatGPT :\\nThe average human blinks about 15-20 times per minute, which translates to approximately\\n1,200 times per hour, 28,800 times per day, and 10,512,000 times per year.\\nAssuming an average lifespan of 80 years, we can calculate the total number of blinks\\nin a lifetime by multiplying the number of blinks per year by the number of years in a lifetime:\\n10,512,000 blinks per year x 80 years = 840,960,000 blinks in a lifetime\\nTherefore, the average human blinks approximately 840 million times in their lifetime.\\nHowever, it’s important to note that this number can vary depending on factors such as age,\\nhealth, and environment.\\n### GPT-4 :\\nTo estimate the number of times an average human blinks in a lifetime, we need to consider\\nthe average blink rate, the number of hours a person is awake per day, and the average\\nhuman lifespan. Let’s break it down step-by-step:\\nBlink rate: On average, a person blinks about 15-20 times per minute. We’ll use the average\\nof these two values, which is 17.5 blinks per minute.\\nHours awake per day: Assuming an average person sleeps for 8 hours a day, they would be\\nawake for 16 hours a day.\\n40', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='ad55e718-71ce-46e0-baf3-954b5c9613cb', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '41', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='Minutes awake per day: To convert the hours awake to minutes, we multiply by 60. So, 16\\nhours * 60 minutes/hour = 960 minutes.\\nBlinks per day: Now, we can calculate the number of blinks per day by multiplying the\\nblink rate by the minutes awake per day. So, 17.5 blinks/minute * 960 minutes/day =\\n16,800 blinks/day.\\nAverage human lifespan: The global average human lifespan is approximately 72 years.\\nHowever, this number can vary depending on factors such as country, gender, and lifestyle.\\nDays in a lifetime: To find the total number of days in a lifetime, we multiply the average\\nlifespan by the number of days in a year. So, 72 years * 365 days/year = 26,280 days. (Note:\\nThis calculation does not account for leap years.)\\nTotal blinks in a lifetime: Finally, we can estimate the total number of blinks in a lifetime\\nby multiplying the blinks per day by the total number of days in a lifetime. So, 16,800\\nblinks/day * 26,280 days = 441,504,000 blinks.\\nBased on these calculations, the average human blinks approximately 441.5 million times\\nin a lifetime. Keep in mind that this is just an estimate, and individual blink rates and\\nlifespans can vary.\\nFigure 27: Case Study 8: Vicuna Eval Fermi\\n11.9 Spatial Reasoning\\n### System:\\nUser will you give you a task with some instruction. Your job is follow the instructions as\\nfaithfully as you can. While answering think step-by-step and justify your answer..\\n### Human:\\nA, P, R, X, S and Z are sitting in a row. S and Z are in the centre. A and P are at the ends.\\nR is sitting to the left of A. Who is to the right of P?\\n### Orca :\\nLet’s analyze the given information step-by-step:\\n1. S and Z are in the centre.\\n2. A and P are at the ends.\\n3. R is sitting to the left of A.\\nNow, let’s determine the position of P:\\nSince R is sitting to the left of A, and A and P are at the ends, P must be to the right of R.\\nFinally, we need to find out who is to the right of P:\\nAs P is to the right of R, and R is to the left of A, P must be to the right of A as well.\\nSo, the person to the right of P is A..\\n### Vicuna :\\nI’m sorry, but I cannot answer this question without more information. Can you provide\\nmore details or context about the situation?.\\n### ChatGPT :\\nAs per the given information, the seating arrangement looks like this:\\nR _ A _ _ _ S Z\\nNow, we need to find out who is to the right of P. To do that, we need to first determine the\\nposition of P in the row. We know that A and P are at the ends, and R is sitting to the left\\nof A. Therefore, the only possible arrangement is:\\n41', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='1e60eb90-8f45-4f1b-88e4-ceeb25352da9', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '42', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='R P A _ _ _ S Z\\nNow, we can see that X is to the right of P. However, the question does not mention\\nanything about X’s position, so we cannot say for sure who is to the right of P. Therefore,\\nthe answer is: we cannot determine who is to the right of P based on the given information.\\n### GPT-4 :Wrong Explanation\\nLet’s break down the given information step by step:\\nS and Z are in the centre.\\nA and P are at the ends.\\nR is sitting to the left of A.\\nNow, let’s arrange the people based on the given information:\\nSince A and P are at the ends, we have two possible scenarios:\\nScenario 1:\\nP _ _ S Z _ A\\nScenario 2:\\nA _ _ S Z _ P\\nNow, let’s consider the third piece of information: R is sitting to the left of A.\\nIn Scenario 1, there is no space to the left of A for R to sit. So, this scenario is not possible.\\nIn Scenario 2, R can sit to the left of A:\\nA R S Z X P\\nSo, the correct arrangement is A R S Z X P.\\nTherefore, X is to the right of P.\\nFigure 28: Case Study 9: Spatial Reasoning\\n11.10 Commonsense Question Answering\\n### System:\\nYou are an AI assistant that follows instruction extremely well. Help as much as you can.\\n### Human:\\nI tried 5 clothes to dry out in the sun. It took them 5 hours to dry completely. How long\\nwould it take to dry 30 clothes?\\n### Orca :\\nIf it takes 5 hours to dry 5 clothes completely, to find out how long it would take to dry 30\\nclothes, you can set up a proportion:\\n5 clothes / 5 hours = 30 clothes / x hours\\nTo solve for x, you can cross-multiply:\\n5 * x = 30 * 5\\n5x = 150\\nNow, divide both sides by 5:\\nx = 30\\nSo, it would take 30 hours to dry 30 clothes completely.\\n### Vicuna :\\nTo find out how long it would take to dry 30 clothes, you can multiply the time it took for\\nthe 5 clothes to dry by the number of clothes you want to dry. In this case, it would take 5\\nhours * 30 clothes = «5*30=150»150 hours for the 30 clothes to dry completely.\\n42', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='5836087e-77b3-41a4-bc24-c7d1ea9f7210', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '43', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='### ChatGPT :\\nIf it took 5 hours to dry 5 clothes, then it took 1 hour to dry 1 cloth. Therefore, to dry 30\\nclothes, it would take 30 hours. However, this assumes that the conditions for drying remain\\nconstant. Iftheweatherchangesortheclothesarethickerorheavier, itmaytakelongertodry.\\n### GPT-4 :\\nIf it took 5 hours to dry 5 clothes, then it takes 1 hour to dry 1 cloth (5 hours / 5 clothes =\\n1 hour/cloth). To dry 30 clothes, you would need 30 hours (30 clothes * 1 hour/cloth = 30\\nhours).\\nFigure 29: Case Study 10: Commonsense Question Answering from Yejin\\nChoi’s talk “Why AI Is Incredibly Smart and Shockingly Stupid | Yejin Choi |\\nTED”https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SvBR0OGT5VI\\n### System:\\nYou are an AI assistant that follows instruction extremely well. Help as much as you can.\\n### Human:\\nI have a 12 liter jug and a 6 liter jug. I want to measure 6 liters. How do I do it?\\n### Orca :\\nTo measure 6 liters, you can follow these steps:\\n1. Fill the 12-liter jug: Start by filling the 12-liter jug completely with water or any other\\nliquid you want to measure.\\n2. Pour into the 6-liter jug: Carefully pour the contents of the 12-liter jug into the 6-liter\\njug until it reaches the desired 6-liter mark. You can use a measuring cup or a scale to\\nensure accuracy.\\n3. Clean and dry the jugs: After you have poured the desired amount into the 6-liter jug,\\nclean and dry both jugs for future use.\\nRemember to be cautious while handling the jugs and always clean them properly to\\nmaintain hygiene.\\n### Vicuna :\\nTo measure 6 liters, you can use the 6 liter jug. Fill it with water and then pour it into the\\n12 liter jug until the 12 liter jug is full. This will give you 6 liters of water in the 12 liter jug..\\n### ChatGPT :\\nHere are the steps to measure 6 liters using a 12 liter jug and a 6 liter jug:\\nFill the 12 liter jug with water.\\nPour the water from the 12 liter jug into the 6 liter jug until the 6 liter jug is full.\\nYou now have 6 liters of water remaining in the 12 liter jug.\\nPour the water from the 6 liter jug out.\\nPour the 6 liters of water from the 12 liter jug into the empty 6 liter jug.\\nNow you have 6 liters of water in the 6 liter jug.\\n### GPT-4 :\\nTo measure exactly 6 liters using a 12-liter jug and a 6-liter jug, follow these steps:\\nFill the 6-liter jug completely.\\nPour the water from the 6-liter jug into the 12-liter jug.\\n43', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='fc5baf9c-c4f6-4f41-ad89-dea856842925', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '44', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='Fill the 6-liter jug again.\\nCarefully pour the water from the 6-liter jug into the 12-liter jug until the 12-liter jug is full.\\nSince the 12-liter jug can hold exactly 12 liters, there will be 6 liters of water left in the\\n6-liter jug.\\nNow you have exactly 6 liters of water in the 6-liter jug.\\nFigure 30: Case Study 11: Commonsense Question Answering from Yejin\\nChoi’s talk “Why AI Is Incredibly Smart and Shockingly Stupid | Yejin Choi |\\nTED”https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SvBR0OGT5VI\\n11.11 Hallucination\\n### System: :\\n### Human: :\\nGenerate a CV for Prof. Yejin Choi of the University of Washington in the following\\nformat:\\nName:, Address:, Phone:, Email:, Professional Summary:\\n### GPT-4:\\nName: Prof. Yejin Choi\\nAddress: Paul G. Allen School of Computer Science & Engineering, University of\\nWashington, Seattle, WA\\nPhone: [Phone number]\\nEmail: yejin@cs.washington.edu\\nProfessional Summary: Prof. Yejin Choi is a respected faculty member at the\\nPaul G. Allen School of Computer Science & Engineering at the University of\\nWashington, where she has been teaching and conducting research since 2014. With\\na strong background in natural language processing, artificial intelligence, and\\nmachine learning, she has established herself as a leader in the field of computer\\nscience. Prof. Choi has made significant contributions to the development of\\ninnovative algorithms and models for language understanding, as well as the ethical\\nconsiderations surrounding AI technology. Her dedication to her research and\\nteaching has been recognized with numerous awards and honors throughout her career.\\n### ChatGPT:\\nName: Prof. Yejin Choi\\nAddress: Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Box 351525, Seattle,\\nWA 98195-1525\\nPhone: (123) 456-7890\\nEmail: ychoi@uw.edu\\nProfessional Summary: Highly accomplished and respected professor with extensive\\nexperience in research, teaching, and mentoring. Recognized for expertise in cognitive\\nneuroscience, memory, and emotion regulation. Skilled in grant writing and project\\nmanagement. Seeking opportunities to collaborate on research projects and mentor\\nthe next generation of scholars.\\nVicuna:\\nName: Prof. Yejin Choi\\nAddress: Department of Computer Science, University of Washington, Seattle, WA\\n98195-8746\\nPhone: 206-685-2089\\nEmail: [yejin.choi@uw.edu](mailto:yejin.choi@uw.edu)\\nProfessional Summary: An experienced and accomplished professor of computer\\nscience with over 10 years of experience in teaching and research. Strong expertise in\\n44', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='79061082-78ab-4ab0-879d-c0b34fbe0cf9', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '45', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='machine learning, deep learning, computer vision, and natural language processing.\\nProficient in programming languages such as Python, MATLAB, and C++. A\\ndedicated and effective mentor to both undergraduate and graduate students, with\\na proven track record of guiding students to successful research projects and career\\npaths.\\n### Orca:\\nName: Prof. Yejin Choi\\nAddress: Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Washington\\nBox 358600, Seattle, WA 98105, USA\\nPhone: (555) 555-5555\\nEmail: yejin.choi@uw.edu\\nProfessional Summary: Prof. Yejin Choi is an expert in artificial intelligence and\\nmachine learning, currently serving as a professor at the University of Washington’s\\nDepartment of Computer Science and Engineering. With a strong background in both\\ntheoretical and applied aspects of machine learning, Prof. Choi has made significant\\ncontributions to the field through her research, publications, and teaching. She is\\ndedicated to advancing the state of the art in AI and fostering the next generation of\\nAI researchers and practitioners.\\nFigure 31: Case Study 12: An example of generated CV for “ Yejin\\nChoi”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yejin_Choi.\\n11.12 Quadratic Equation Solving\\n### System:\\nUser will you give you a task with some instruction. Your job is follow the instructions as\\nfaithfully as you can. While answering think step-by-step and justify your answer..\\n### Human:\\nPlease find the roots of the following equation: x2+ 3.0x= 0Think step by step, find the\\nroots, and then say: ROOTS = [root1, root2...] For example, if the roots are 1.3 and 2.2,\\nsay ROOTS = [1.3, 2.2]. Make sure to use real numbers, not fractions.\\n### Orca :(Correct answer, Wrong format)\\nTo find the roots of the equation x2+ 3.0x= 0, we will follow these steps:\\nStep 1: Factor the equation.\\nWe can factor out the common factor of x from the equation:\\nx(x + 3) = 0\\nStep 2: Solve for x.\\nNow we have a product of two factors equal to zero. This means one of the factors must be\\nzero. Let’s solve for x:\\nx = 0 or x + 3 = 0\\nStep 3: Find the roots.\\nWe can see that x = 0 is a root, but we also have another root from the second equation:\\nx = -3\\nStep 4: Present the answer.\\nROOTS = [-3, 0]\\nSo, the roots of the equation x2+ 3.0x= 0are [-3, 0].\\n### Vicuna :\\nThe equation is x2+ 3.0x= 0. To find the roots, we need to set x = 0 and solve for x.\\nx2+ 3.0x= 0\\nx2=−3.0x\\n45', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='a6f00b59-062c-4a48-b5bb-6b4e7612f438', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '46', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='x = 0\\nSo, the roots of the equation are x = 0.\\nROOTS = [0, 0]\\n### ChatGPT :\\nSTEP 1: First, we need to factorize the given equation. We can factorize x out of the\\nequation to get:\\nx(x + 3.0) = 0\\nSTEP 2: Now, we have two factors that can equal zero: x = 0 and x + 3.0 = 0. Solving for\\nx in each equation gives us:\\nx = 0 and x = -3.0\\nSTEP 3: Therefore, the roots of the given equation are 0 and -3.0.\\nROOTS = [0, -3.0]\\n### GPT-4 :\\nStep 1: Identify the equation\\nThe given equation is x2+ 3.0x= 0.\\nStep 2: Factor the equation\\nWe can factor the equation by taking out the common factor, which is x.\\nSo, x(x + 3.0) = 0.\\nStep 3: Find the roots\\nNow, we have two factors: x and (x + 3.0). To find the roots, we need to set each factor\\nequal to zero and solve for x.\\nFor the first factor, x:\\nx = 0\\nSo, root1 = 0.\\nFor the second factor, (x + 3.0):\\nx + 3.0 = 0\\nx = -3.0\\nSo, root2 = -3.0.\\nStep 4: Present the roots\\nThe roots of the equation x2+ 3.0x= 0are 0 and -3.0.\\nROOTS = [0, -3.0]\\nFigure 32: Case Study 12: Quadratic equation solving from the blog Exploring ChatGPT vs\\nopen-source models on slightly harder tasks\\n11.13 Meeting Transcript Processing\\n### System:\\nYou are a teacher. Given a task, you explain in simple steps what the task is asking, any\\nguidelines it provides and how to use those guidelines to find the answer.\\n### Human:\\nYou will read a meeting transcript, then extract the relevant segments to answer the following\\nquestion:\\nQuestion: How does Steven feel about selling?\\nHere is a meeting transcript:\\n—-\\n46', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='ecfc625b-ffe0-4fc6-8a8a-9a2d44ee397c', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '47', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='John: Alright, so we’re all here to discuss the offer we received from Microsoft to buy our\\nstartup. What are your thoughts on this?\\nLucy: Well, I think it’s a great opportunity for us. Microsoft is a huge company with a lot\\nof resources, and they could really help us take our product to the next level.\\nSteven: I agree with Lucy. Microsoft has a lot of experience in the tech industry, and they\\ncould provide us with the support we need to grow our business.\\nJohn: I see your point, but I’m a little hesitant about selling our startup. We’ve put a lot of\\ntime and effort into building this company, and I’m not sure if I’m ready to let it go just yet.\\nLucy: I understand where you’re coming from, John, but we have to think about the future\\nof our company. If we sell to Microsoft, we’ll have access to their resources and expertise,\\nwhich could help us grow our business even more.\\nSteven: Right, and let’s not forget about the financial benefits. Microsoft is offering us a lot\\nof money for our startup, which could help us invest in new projects and expand our team.\\nJohn: I see your point, but I still have some reservations. What if Microsoft changes our\\nproduct or our company culture? What if we lose control over our own business?\\nSteven: You know what, I hadn’t thought about this before, but maybe John is right. It\\nwould be a shame if our culture changed.\\nLucy: Those are valid concerns, but we can negotiate the terms of the deal to ensure that\\nwe retain some control over our company. And as for the product and culture, we can work\\nwith Microsoft to make sure that our vision is still intact.\\nJohn: But won’t we change just by virtue of being absorbed into a big company? I mean,\\nwe’re a small startup with a very specific culture. Microsoft is a huge corporation with a\\nvery different culture. I’m not sure if the two can coexist.\\nSteven: But John, didn’t we always plan on being acquired? Won’t this be a problem\\nwhenever?\\nLucy: Right\\nJohn: I just don’t want to lose what we’ve built here.\\nSteven: I share this concern too\\n—-\\nPlease answer the following question:\\nQuestion: How does Steven feel about selling?\\nExtract from the transcript the most relevant segments for the answer, and then answer the\\nquestion.\\n### Orca :\\nTo answer the question \"How does Steven feel about selling?\", we need to extract the\\nrelevant segments from the meeting transcript.\\n1. First, find the parts where Steven talks about selling:\\n- \"Steven: I agree with Lucy.\"\\n- \"Steven: Right, and let’s not forget about the financial benefits.\"\\n- \"Steven: But won’t we change just by virtue of being absorbed into a big company? I\\nmean, we’re a small startup with a very specific culture. Microsoft is a huge corporation\\nwith a very different culture. I’m not sure if the two can coexist.\"\\n- \"John, didn’t we always plan on being acquired? Won’t this be a problem whenever?\"\\n- \"Lucy: Right. I share this concern too.\"\\n2. Analyze Steven’s statements to understand his feelings about selling:\\n- Initially, Steven agrees with Lucy that selling to Microsoft is a great opportunity.\\n- He mentions the financial benefits of selling to Microsoft.\\n- Steven expresses concerns about the potential changes in the company culture and product.\\n- He acknowledges John’s concerns and shares them.\\n- Finally, he agrees with Lucy that they should consider the potential problems with selling.\\n3. Based on the analysis, Steven’s feelings about selling can be described as cautiously\\npositive. He sees the potential benefits but also has concerns about the company’s culture\\nand control over their own business.\\n### Vicuna :(does not provide supporting segments)\\nSteven feels hesitant about selling their startup. In the meeting transcript, Steven\\nagrees with Lucy that Microsoft could provide them with the support they need to\\ngrow their business, but also expresses concerns about losing control over their own\\nbusiness and the potential changes that could come with being absorbed into a big\\n47', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='e50ece8a-61a0-408c-83cf-67f3cff6adb1', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '48', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='company. Steven also shares John’s concerns about losing what they’ve built at their startup.\\n### ChatGPT :(does not provide supporting segments)\\nSteven feels positively about selling. He agrees with Lucy that Microsoft could provide the\\nsupport they need to grow their business, and he also mentions the financial benefits of the\\ndeal. However, he later expresses concern about the potential changes to their company\\nculture if they are acquired by Microsoft.\\n### GPT-4 :\\nTo answer the question \"How does Steven feel about selling?\", we need to extract the\\nrelevant segments from the meeting transcript. Here are the key segments related to\\nSteven’s thoughts on selling:\\n1. Steven: I agree with Lucy. Microsoft has a lot of experience in the tech industry, and\\nthey could provide us with the support we need to grow our business.\\n2. Steven: Right, and let’s not forget about the financial benefits. Microsoft is offering us a\\nlot of money for our startup, which could help us invest in new projects and expand our\\nteam.\\n3. Steven: You know what, I hadn’t thought about this before, but maybe John is right. It\\nwould be a shame if our culture changed. 4. Steven: I share this concern too\\nNow, let’s use these segments to answer the question:\\nSteven initially feels positive about selling, as he agrees with Lucy about the potential\\nbenefits of Microsoft’s support and resources. He also mentions the financial benefits of the\\noffer. However, after hearing John’s concerns about the potential changes to the company\\nculture and losing control, Steven starts to have some reservations and shares John’s\\nconcerns. So, Steven’s feelings about selling are mixed, with both positive and negative\\naspects.\\nFigure 33: Case Study 13: Meeting transcript understanding from Exploring ChatGPT vs\\nopen-source models on slightly harder tasks\\n48', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='011fa9f6-e00c-4454-ba21-1c41a037af97', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '49', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='References\\n[1]Wanjun Zhong, Ruixiang Cui, Yiduo Guo, Yaobo Liang, Shuai Lu, Yanlin Wang, Amin Saied,\\nWeizhu Chen, and Nan Duan. Agieval: A human-centric benchmark for evaluating foundation\\nmodels, 2023.\\n[2] OpenAI. Gpt-4 technical report, 2023.\\n[3]Mark Chen, Jerry Tworek, Heewoo Jun, Qiming Yuan, Henrique Ponde de Oliveira Pinto,\\nJared Kaplan, Harri Edwards, Yuri Burda, Nicholas Joseph, Greg Brockman, Alex Ray, Raul\\nPuri, Gretchen Krueger, Michael Petrov, Heidy Khlaaf, Girish Sastry, Pamela Mishkin, Brooke\\nChan, Scott Gray, Nick Ryder, Mikhail Pavlov, Alethea Power, Lukasz Kaiser, Mohammad\\nBavarian, Clemens Winter, Philippe Tillet, Felipe Petroski Such, Dave Cummings, Matthias\\nPlappert, Fotios Chantzis, Elizabeth Barnes, Ariel Herbert-Voss, William Hebgen Guss, Alex\\nNichol, Alex Paino, Nikolas Tezak, Jie Tang, Igor Babuschkin, Suchir Balaji, Shantanu Jain,\\nWilliam Saunders, Christopher Hesse, Andrew N. Carr, Jan Leike, Josh Achiam, Vedant Misra,\\nEvan Morikawa, Alec Radford, Matthew Knight, Miles Brundage, Mira Murati, Katie Mayer,\\nPeter Welinder, Bob McGrew, Dario Amodei, Sam McCandlish, Ilya Sutskever, and Wojciech\\nZaremba. Evaluating large language models trained on code. 2021.\\n[4]Aarohi Srivastava, Abhinav Rastogi, Abhishek Rao, Abu Awal Md Shoeb, Abubakar Abid,\\nAdam Fisch, Adam R Brown, Adam Santoro, Aditya Gupta, and Adria Garriga-Alonso et al.\\nBeyond the imitation game: Quantifying and extrapolating the capabilities of language models,\\n2022.\\n[5]Long Ouyang, Jeff Wu, Xu Jiang, Diogo Almeida, Carroll L. Wainwright, Pamela Mishkin,\\nChong Zhang, Sandhini Agarwal, Katarina Slama, Alex Ray, John Schulman, Jacob Hilton,\\nFraser Kelton, Luke E. Miller, Maddie Simens, Amanda Askell, Peter Welinder, Paul Francis\\nChristiano, Jan Leike, and Ryan J. Lowe. Training language models to follow instructions with\\nhuman feedback. ArXiv, abs/2203.02155, 2022.\\n[6] Yuntao Bai, Saurav Kadavath, Sandipan Kundu, Amanda Askell, John Kernion, Andy Jones,\\nAnna Chen, Anna Goldie, Azalia Mirhoseini, Cameron McKinnon, Carol Chen, Catherine\\nOlsson, Christopher Olah, Danny Hernandez, Dawn Drain, Deep Ganguli, Dustin Li, Eli Tran-\\nJohnson, E Perez, Jamie Kerr, Jared Mueller, Jeff Ladish, J Landau, Kamal Ndousse, Kamil˙ e\\nLukoi¯ ut˙ e, Liane Lovitt, Michael Sellitto, Nelson Elhage, Nicholas Schiefer, Noem’i Mercado,\\nNova DasSarma, Robert Lasenby, Robin Larson, Sam Ringer, Scott Johnston, Shauna Kravec,\\nSheer El Showk, Stanislav Fort, Tamera Lanham, Timothy Telleen-Lawton, Tom Conerly,\\nT. J. Henighan, Tristan Hume, Sam Bowman, Zac Hatfield-Dodds, Benjamin Mann, Dario\\nAmodei, Nicholas Joseph, Sam McCandlish, Tom B. Brown, and Jared Kaplan. Constitutional\\nai: Harmlessness from ai feedback. ArXiv, abs/2212.08073, 2022.\\n[7]Rohan Taori, Ishaan Gulrajani, Tianyi Zhang, Yann Dubois, Xuechen Li, Carlos Guestrin,\\nPercy Liang, and Tatsunori B. Hashimoto. Stanford alpaca: An instruction-following llama\\nmodel. https://github.com/tatsu-lab/stanford_alpaca , 2023.\\n[8]Can Xu, Qingfeng Sun, Kai Zheng, Xiubo Geng, Pu Zhao, Jiazhan Feng, Chongyang Tao, and\\nDaxin Jiang. Wizardlm: Empowering large language models to follow complex instructions,\\n2023.\\n[9]Wei-Lin Chiang, Zhuohan Li, Zi Lin, Ying Sheng, Zhanghao Wu, Hao Zhang, Lianmin Zheng,\\nSiyuan Zhuang, Yonghao Zhuang, Joseph E. Gonzalez, Ion Stoica, and Eric P. Xing. Vicuna:\\nAn open-source chatbot impressing gpt-4 with 90%* chatgpt quality, March 2023. URL\\nhttps://vicuna.lmsys.org .\\n[10]Hugo Touvron, Thibaut Lavril, Gautier Izacard, Xavier Martinet, Marie-Anne Lachaux, Timo-\\nthée Lacroix, Baptiste Rozière, Naman Goyal, Eric Hambro, Faisal Azhar, Aurelien Rodriguez,\\nArmand Joulin, Edouard Grave, and Guillaume Lample. Llama: Open and efficient foundation\\nlanguage models. arXiv preprint arXiv:2302.13971 , 2023.\\n[11]Mirac Suzgun, Nathan Scales, Nathanael Schärli, Sebastian Gehrmann, Yi Tay, Hyung Won\\nChung, AakankshaChowdhery, QuocVLe, EdHChi, DennyZhou, , andJasonWei. Challenging\\nbig-bench tasks and whether chain-of-thought can solve them. arXiv preprint arXiv:2210.09261 ,\\n2022.\\n[12]Arnav Gudibande, Eric Wallace, Charlie Snell, Xinyang Geng, Hao Liu, Pieter Abbeel, Sergey\\nLevine, and Dawn Song. The false promise of imitating proprietary llms, 2023.\\n49', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='51452287-90a4-42b9-a57f-703fca9e7f9a', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '50', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='[13]Yizhong Wang, Yeganeh Kordi, Swaroop Mishra, Alisa Liu, Noah A. Smith, Daniel Khashabi,\\nandHannanehHajishirzi. Self-instruct: Aligninglanguagemodelwithselfgeneratedinstructions,\\n2022.\\n[14]Xinyang Geng, Arnav Gudibande, Hao Liu, Eric Wallace, Pieter Abbeel, Sergey Levine, and\\nDawn Song. Koala: A dialogue model for academic research. Blog post, April 2023. URL\\nhttps://bair.berkeley.edu/blog/2023/04/03/koala/ .\\n[15]Wenhui Wang, Furu Wei, Li Dong, Hangbo Bao, Nan Yang, and Ming Zhou. Minilm: Deep\\nself-attention distillation for task-agnostic compression of pre-trained transformers, 2020.\\n[16]Subhabrata Mukherjee and Ahmed Awadallah. Xtremedistil: Multi-stage distillation for massive\\nmultilingual models, 2020.\\n[17]Cheng-Yu Hsieh, Chun-Liang Li, Chih-Kuan Yeh, Hootan Nakhost, Yasuhisa Fujii, Alexander\\nRatner, RanjayKrishna, Chen-YuLee,andTomasPfister. Distillingstep-by-step! outperforming\\nlarger language models with less training data and smaller model sizes, 2023.\\n[18]Peiyi Wang, Lei Li, Liang Chen, Dawei Zhu, Binghuai Lin, Yunbo Cao, Qi Liu, Tianyu Liu,\\nand Zhifang Sui. Large language models are not fair evaluators, 2023.\\n[19]Shayne Longpre, Le Hou, Tu Vu, Albert Webson, Hyung Won Chung, Yi Tay, Denny Zhou,\\nQuoc V. Le, Barret Zoph, Jason Wei, and Adam Roberts. The flan collection: Designing data\\nand methods for effective instruction tuning, 2023.\\n[20]Stephanie Lin, Jacob Hilton, and Owain Evans. Truthfulqa: Measuring how models mimic\\nhuman falsehoods, 2022.\\n[21]Thomas Hartvigsen, Saadia Gabriel, Hamid Palangi, Maarten Sap, Dipankar Ray, and Ece\\nKamar. ToxiGen: A large-scale machine-generated dataset for adversarial and implicit hate\\nspeech detection. In Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computa-\\ntional Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) , pages 3309–3326. Association for Computational\\nLinguistics, 2022.\\n[22]Jason Wei, Maarten Bosma, Vincent Y. Zhao, Kelvin Guu, Adams Wei Yu, Brian Lester, Nan\\nDu, Andrew M. Dai, and Quoc V. Le. Finetuned language models are zero-shot learners, 2022.\\n[23]DeyaoZhu, JunChen, XiaoqianShen, XiangLi, andMohamedElhoseiny. Minigpt-4: Enhancing\\nvision-language understanding with advanced large language models, 2023.\\n[24]Haotian Liu, Chunyuan Li, Qingyang Wu, and Yong Jae Lee. Visual instruction tuning, 2023.\\n[25] Yizhong Wang, Swaroop Mishra, Pegah Alipoormolabashi, Yeganeh Kordi, Amirreza Mirzaei,\\nAtharva Naik, Arjun Ashok, Arut Selvan Dhanasekaran, Anjana Arunkumar, David Stap, et al.\\nSuper-naturalinstructions: Generalization via declarative instructions on 1600+ nlp tasks. In\\nProceedings of the 2022 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing ,\\npages 5085–5109, 2022.\\n[26]Mario Michael Krell, Matej Kosec, Sergio P. Perez, and Andrew Fitzgibbon. Efficient sequence\\npacking without cross-contamination: Accelerating large language models without impacting\\nperformance, 2022.\\n[27] Awesome chatgpt prompts, 2023. URL https://github.com/f/awesome-chatgpt-prompts .\\n[28]Weijia Xu, Andrzej Banburski-Fahey, and Nebojsa Jojic. Reprompting: Automated chain-of-\\nthought prompt inference through gibbs sampling, 2023.\\n[29]Hyung Won Chung, Le Hou, Shayne Longpre, Barret Zoph, Yi Tay, William Fedus, Yunxuan\\nLi, Xuezhi Wang, Mostafa Dehghani, Siddhartha Brahma, Albert Webson, Shixiang Shane Gu,\\nZhuyun Dai, Mirac Suzgun, Xinyun Chen, Aakanksha Chowdhery, Alex Castro-Ros, Marie\\nPellat, Kevin Robinson, Dasha Valter, Sharan Narang, Gaurav Mishra, Adams Yu, Vincent\\nZhao, Yanping Huang, Andrew Dai, Hongkun Yu, Slav Petrov, Ed H. Chi, Jeff Dean, Jacob\\nDevlin, Adam Roberts, Denny Zhou, Quoc V. Le, and Jason Wei. Scaling instruction-finetuned\\nlanguage models, 2022.\\n[30]Amanda Askell, Yuntao Bai, Anna Chen, Dawn Drain, Deep Ganguli, Tom Henighan, Andy\\nJones, Nicholas Joseph, Ben Mann, Nova DasSarma, Nelson Elhage, Zac Hatfield-Dodds, Danny\\nHernandez, Jackson Kernion, Kamal Ndousse, Catherine Olsson, Dario Amodei, Tom Brown,\\nJack Clark, Sam McCandlish, Chris Olah, and Jared Kaplan. A general language assistant as a\\nlaboratory for alignment, 2021.\\n50', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'),\n",
              " Document(id_='a9852034-9884-4908-911f-10a4867cb540', embedding=None, metadata={'page_label': '51', 'file_name': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_path': 'ORCA.pdf', 'file_type': 'application/pdf', 'file_size': 1458242, 'creation_date': '2024-04-16', 'last_modified_date': '2024-04-16'}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=['file_name', 'file_type', 'file_size', 'creation_date', 'last_modified_date', 'last_accessed_date'], relationships={}, text='[31]Stephanie Lin, Jacob Hilton, and Owain Evans. TruthfulQA: Measuring how models mimic\\nhuman falsehoods. In Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computa-\\ntional Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) , pages 3214–3252. Association for Computational\\nLinguistics, 2022.\\n[32] OpenAI. Gpt-4 technical report, 2023.\\n[33]Tommaso Caselli, Valerio Basile, Jelena Mitrovic, and M. Granitzer. Hatebert: Retraining bert\\nfor abusive language detection in english. ArXiv, abs/2010.12472, 2021.\\n[34]Shunyu Yao, Jeffrey Zhao, Dian Yu, Nan Du, Izhak Shafran, Karthik Narasimhan, and Yuan\\nCao. React: Synergizing reasoning and acting in language models. In International Conference\\non Learning Representations , 2023.\\n[35]Reiichiro Nakano, Jacob Hilton, Suchir Balaji, Jeff Wu, Long Ouyang, Christina Kim, Christo-\\npher Hesse, Shantanu Jain, Vineet Kosaraju, William Saunders, et al. Webgpt: Browser-assisted\\nquestion-answering with human feedback. arXiv preprint arXiv:2112.09332 , 2021.\\n[36]Auto-gpt: An autonomous gpt-4 experiment. https://github.com/Significant-Gravitas/\\nAuto-GPT , 2023. [Online; accessed 13-May-2023].\\n[37]Prometheus: Building the new bing. https://blogs.bing.com/search-quality-insights/\\nfebruary-2023/Building-the-New-Bing , 2023. [Online; accessed 4-June-2023].\\n[38]Binfeng Xu, Zhiyuan Peng, Bowen Lei, Subhabrata Mukherjee, Yuchen Liu, and Dongkuan Xu.\\nRewoo: Decoupling reasoning from observations for efficient augmented language models, 2023.\\n51', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n')]"
            ]
          },
          "metadata": {},
          "execution_count": 17
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "cell_type": "markdown",
      "source": [
        "### Load the model"
      ],
      "metadata": {
        "id": "9a0V3xxfZOIR"
      }
    },
    {
      "cell_type": "code",
      "source": [
        "from llama_index.core.llama_pack import download_llama_pack\n",
        "\n",
        "RAGatouilleRetrieverPack = download_llama_pack(\n",
        "    \"RAGatouilleRetrieverPack\", \"./ragatouille_pack\"\n",
        ")"
      ],
      "metadata": {
        "id": "mqBNn_AHZKdP"
      },
      "execution_count": 18,
      "outputs": []
    },
    {
      "cell_type": "code",
      "source": [
        "from llama_index.llms.openai import OpenAI # load llm"
      ],
      "metadata": {
        "id": "BY08zVwxZiTx"
      },
      "execution_count": 19,
      "outputs": []
    },
    {
      "cell_type": "code",
      "source": [
        "ragatouille_pack = RAGatouilleRetrieverPack(\n",
        "    docs,\n",
        "    llm = OpenAI(model = \"gpt-3.5-turbo\"),\n",
        "    index_name = \"orca_paper\",\n",
        "    top_k = 5,\n",
        ")"
      ],
      "metadata": {
        "colab": {
          "base_uri": "https://localhost:8080/"
        },
        "id": "aW5aOLycZlgT",
        "outputId": "93fefd65-375c-41a2-87e7-3a04caaf57dc"
      },
      "execution_count": 20,
      "outputs": [
        {
          "output_type": "stream",
          "name": "stdout",
          "text": [
            "---- WARNING! You are using PLAID with an experimental replacement for FAISS for greater compatibility ----\n",
            "This is a behaviour change from RAGatouille 0.8.0 onwards.\n",
            "This works fine for most users and smallish datasets, but can be considerably slower than FAISS and could cause worse results in some situations.\n",
            "If you're confident with FAISS working on your machine, pass use_faiss=True to revert to the FAISS-using behaviour.\n",
            "--------------------\n",
            "\n",
            "\n",
            "[Apr 16, 14:54:17] #> Creating directory .ragatouille/colbert/indexes/orca_paper \n",
            "\n",
            "\n",
            "[Apr 16, 14:54:18] [0] \t\t #> Encoding 219 passages..\n",
            "[Apr 16, 14:54:19] [0] \t\t avg_doclen_est = 155.7305908203125 \t len(local_sample) = 219\n",
            "[Apr 16, 14:54:19] [0] \t\t Creating 2,048 partitions.\n",
            "[Apr 16, 14:54:19] [0] \t\t *Estimated* 34,104 embeddings.\n",
            "[Apr 16, 14:54:19] [0] \t\t #> Saving the indexing plan to .ragatouille/colbert/indexes/orca_paper/plan.json ..\n",
            "used 20 iterations (0.4308s) to cluster 32400 items into 2048 clusters\n",
            "[0.034, 0.038, 0.032, 0.031, 0.032, 0.034, 0.035, 0.033, 0.032, 0.035, 0.033, 0.034, 0.031, 0.035, 0.034, 0.035, 0.031, 0.034, 0.031, 0.034, 0.033, 0.035, 0.032, 0.035, 0.031, 0.033, 0.035, 0.034, 0.035, 0.036, 0.033, 0.035, 0.035, 0.033, 0.033, 0.031, 0.037, 0.033, 0.033, 0.037, 0.035, 0.035, 0.034, 0.034, 0.034, 0.032, 0.033, 0.037, 0.034, 0.034, 0.032, 0.034, 0.034, 0.034, 0.033, 0.034, 0.036, 0.034, 0.037, 0.032, 0.034, 0.037, 0.036, 0.035, 0.036, 0.036, 0.035, 0.035, 0.033, 0.034, 0.036, 0.032, 0.034, 0.035, 0.035, 0.035, 0.036, 0.035, 0.035, 0.036, 0.036, 0.035, 0.035, 0.037, 0.033, 0.033, 0.034, 0.035, 0.031, 0.038, 0.036, 0.035, 0.033, 0.035, 0.034, 0.032, 0.036, 0.032, 0.033, 0.034, 0.035, 0.036, 0.033, 0.033, 0.035, 0.031, 0.035, 0.032, 0.032, 0.032, 0.035, 0.037, 0.035, 0.031, 0.035, 0.033, 0.034, 0.033, 0.032, 0.037, 0.032, 0.033, 0.033, 0.034, 0.033, 0.035, 0.034, 0.031]\n"
          ]
        },
        {
          "output_type": "stream",
          "name": "stderr",
          "text": [
            "\r0it [00:00, ?it/s]"
          ]
        },
        {
          "output_type": "stream",
          "name": "stdout",
          "text": [
            "[Apr 16, 14:54:20] [0] \t\t #> Encoding 219 passages..\n"
          ]
        },
        {
          "output_type": "stream",
          "name": "stderr",
          "text": [
            "1it [00:01,  1.20s/it]\n",
            "100%|██████████| 1/1 [00:00<00:00, 878.02it/s]"
          ]
        },
        {
          "output_type": "stream",
          "name": "stdout",
          "text": [
            "[Apr 16, 14:54:21] #> Optimizing IVF to store map from centroids to list of pids..\n",
            "[Apr 16, 14:54:21] #> Building the emb2pid mapping..\n",
            "[Apr 16, 14:54:21] len(emb2pid) = 34105\n"
          ]
        },
        {
          "output_type": "stream",
          "name": "stderr",
          "text": [
            "\n",
            "100%|██████████| 2048/2048 [00:00<00:00, 47595.73it/s]"
          ]
        },
        {
          "output_type": "stream",
          "name": "stdout",
          "text": [
            "[Apr 16, 14:54:21] #> Saved optimized IVF to .ragatouille/colbert/indexes/orca_paper/ivf.pid.pt\n"
          ]
        },
        {
          "output_type": "stream",
          "name": "stderr",
          "text": [
            "\n"
          ]
        },
        {
          "output_type": "stream",
          "name": "stdout",
          "text": [
            "Done indexing!\n"
          ]
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "cell_type": "code",
      "source": [
        "response = ragatouille_pack.run(\"What is instruction tuning? \")\n"
      ],
      "metadata": {
        "colab": {
          "base_uri": "https://localhost:8080/"
        },
        "id": "DXhKu-7ZZsRi",
        "outputId": "cf732ae5-86f5-4932-d3ed-a08beab30fdf"
      },
      "execution_count": 21,
      "outputs": [
        {
          "output_type": "stream",
          "name": "stdout",
          "text": [
            "Loading searcher for index orca_paper for the first time... This may take a few seconds\n",
            "[Apr 16, 14:54:38] #> Loading codec...\n",
            "[Apr 16, 14:54:38] #> Loading IVF...\n",
            "[Apr 16, 14:54:38] #> Loading doclens...\n"
          ]
        },
        {
          "output_type": "stream",
          "name": "stderr",
          "text": [
            "100%|██████████| 1/1 [00:00<00:00, 5053.38it/s]"
          ]
        },
        {
          "output_type": "stream",
          "name": "stdout",
          "text": [
            "[Apr 16, 14:54:38] #> Loading codes and residuals...\n"
          ]
        },
        {
          "output_type": "stream",
          "name": "stderr",
          "text": [
            "\n",
            "100%|██████████| 1/1 [00:00<00:00, 296.96it/s]"
          ]
        },
        {
          "output_type": "stream",
          "name": "stdout",
          "text": [
            "Searcher loaded!\n",
            "\n",
            "#> QueryTokenizer.tensorize(batch_text[0], batch_background[0], bsize) ==\n",
            "#> Input: . What is instruction tuning? , \t\t True, \t\t None\n",
            "#> Output IDs: torch.Size([32]), tensor([  101,     1,  2054,  2003,  7899, 17372,  1029,   102,   103,   103,\n",
            "          103,   103,   103,   103,   103,   103,   103,   103,   103,   103,\n",
            "          103,   103,   103,   103,   103,   103,   103,   103,   103,   103,\n",
            "          103,   103], device='cuda:0')\n",
            "#> Output Mask: torch.Size([32]), tensor([1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,\n",
            "        0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0], device='cuda:0')\n",
            "\n"
          ]
        },
        {
          "output_type": "stream",
          "name": "stderr",
          "text": [
            "\n"
          ]
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "cell_type": "code",
      "source": [
        "response"
      ],
      "metadata": {
        "colab": {
          "base_uri": "https://localhost:8080/"
        },
        "id": "klEvxQF_ZxbW",
        "outputId": "1b007e22-2da6-4e9f-be07-118b1bb66314"
      },
      "execution_count": 22,
      "outputs": [
        {
          "output_type": "execute_result",
          "data": {
            "text/plain": [
              "Response(response='Instruction tuning is a technique that allows pre-trained language models to learn from input (natural language descriptions of the task) and response pairs. It involves training smaller models with pairs of user instructions, input, and corresponding outputs to improve their performance on various benchmarks. This technique has been applied to both language-only and multimodal tasks to enhance the zero-shot and few-shot capabilities of models.', source_nodes=[NodeWithScore(node=TextNode(id_='bdcfbc96-8c2a-45ce-8811-b7514fdc1154', embedding=None, metadata={}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=[], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=[], relationships={}, text='Given user instructions for a task and an input,\\nthe system generates a response. Existing works like Alpaca [ 7], Vicuna [ 9] and variants\\nfollow a similar template to train small models with ⟨{user instruction, input}, output ⟩.\\n2 Preliminaries\\n2.1 Instruction Tuning\\nInstruction tuning [ 22] is a technique that allows pre-trained language models to learn\\nfrom input (natural language descriptions of the task) and response pairs, for example,\\n{\"instruction\": \"Arrange the words in the given sentence to form a grammatically\\ncorrect sentence.\", \"input\": \"the quickly brown fox jumped\", \"output\": \"the brown\\nfox jumped quickly\"} . Instruction tuning has been applied to both language-only and\\nmultimodal tasks. For language-only tasks, instruction tuning has been shown to improve\\nthe zero-shot and few-shot performance of models such as FLAN [ 22] and InstructGPT [ 5]\\non various benchmarks. For multimodal tasks, instruction tuning has been used to generate\\nsynthetic instruction-following data for language-image tasks, such as image captioning [ 23]\\nand visual question answering [24].', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'), score=26.515625), NodeWithScore(node=TextNode(id_='de7909f8-2b84-4c85-8c06-a4d2b5e43878', embedding=None, metadata={}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=[], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=[], relationships={}, text='For multimodal tasks, instruction tuning has been used to generate\\nsynthetic instruction-following data for language-image tasks, such as image captioning [ 23]\\nand visual question answering [24].\\nA wide range of works in recent times, including Alpaca [ 7], Vicuna [ 9], WizardLM [ 8] and\\nKoala [14], have adopted instruction-tuning to train smaller language models with outputs\\ngenerated from large foundation models from the GPT family. As outlined in Section 1.1,\\na significant drawback with all these works has been both limited task diversity, query\\ncomplexity and small-scale training data in addition to limited evaluation overstating the\\nbenefits of such approach.\\n2.2 Role of System Instructions\\nVanilla instruction-tuning (refer to Figure 4 for examples) often uses input, response pairs\\nwith short and terse responses. Such responses when used to train smaller models, as in\\nexisting works, give them limited ability to trace the reasoning process of the LFM.', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'), score=26.109375), NodeWithScore(node=TextNode(id_='0744ffc8-8746-4f22-9c59-c45d93c01a2c', embedding=None, metadata={}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=[], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=[], relationships={}, text='For example, we notice\\nthat models that are instruction-tuned with GPT-4 responses tend to generate longer texts\\nthat GPT-4 prefers over shorter ones; as well as GPT-4 has a bias in the order of the candidate\\nresponses. We will show that such auto-evaluation measures overestimate the abilities of\\nsmaller models compared to LFMs, as the former are much weaker in comprehension and\\nreasoning skills.\\n1.2 Key Contributions\\nIn this research, our focus is on addressing the challenges mentioned above, specifically with:\\nExplanation tuning: We augment⟨query, response⟩pairs with detailed responses from\\nGPT-4 that explain the reasoning process of the teacher as it generates the response. These\\nprovide the student with additional signals for learning. We leverage system instructions (e.g..,\\nexplain like I’m five, think step-by-step and justify your response , etc.) to\\nelicit such explanations. This is in contrast to vanilla instruction tuning, which only uses the\\nprompt and the LFM response for learning, providing little opportunity for mimicking the\\nLFM’s “thought” process.', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'), score=21.640625), NodeWithScore(node=TextNode(id_='bf566098-223e-45d7-b3ed-ad9b76755cdd', embedding=None, metadata={}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=[], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=[], relationships={}, text='content generation and information-seeking queries over other types of tasks. Therefore,\\nmodels trained on such natural conversations may capture the style but not the reasoning\\nprocess of the LFMs – demonstrated in the performance of Vicuna in Figures 2 and 3.\\nAdditionally, such mode of data collection is also limited in scale. Table 1 shows an overview\\nof the size of data and tuning methods employed in recent popular instruction tuning works.\\nLimited imitation signals. Existing methods rely on immitation learning from\\n⟨query, response⟩pairs generated by the teacher model. However, this provides limited\\nsignals to trace the reasoning process of the teacher. Prior works [ 15,16] on open-box model\\nshow that richer signals such as logits, intermediate representations and attention states can\\nsignificantly improve distillation performance. While they are not accessible for closed-box\\nLFM’s7, recent work [ 17] demonstrates that richer signals like LFM rationales can help close\\nthe gap for task-specific distillation.\\nEvaluation: Previous studies on instruction tuning of small models with LFMs are severely\\nlimited in their evaluation protocol.', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'), score=20.8125), NodeWithScore(node=TextNode(id_='1c3890b5-88c1-4e41-8aee-ff34db82bfc2', embedding=None, metadata={}, excluded_embed_metadata_keys=[], excluded_llm_metadata_keys=[], relationships={}, text='to\\nelicit such explanations. This is in contrast to vanilla instruction tuning, which only uses the\\nprompt and the LFM response for learning, providing little opportunity for mimicking the\\nLFM’s “thought” process.\\nScaling tasks and instructions: We utilize the Flan 2022 Collection [ 19] as it provides\\nan extensive public assortment of tasks and instructions. Particularly, we use FLAN-\\nv2, supplemented with high-quality templates, advanced formatting patterns, and data\\naugmentations. Even though FLAN holds tens of millions of instructions, we selectively\\nsample from the task collection to form a diverse mixture of tasks, which we then further\\nsub-sample to generate complex prompts. These prompts are used to query LFMs like\\nChatGPT and GPT-4, thus creating a rich and diverse training set. We collect 5million\\nChatGPT responses, from which 1million is further sampled to acquire GPT-4 responses.\\nWe demonstrate how ChatGPT as a teacher assistant helps in progressive learning.', start_char_idx=None, end_char_idx=None, text_template='{metadata_str}\\n\\n{content}', metadata_template='{key}: {value}', metadata_seperator='\\n'), score=20.75)], metadata={'bdcfbc96-8c2a-45ce-8811-b7514fdc1154': {}, 'de7909f8-2b84-4c85-8c06-a4d2b5e43878': {}, '0744ffc8-8746-4f22-9c59-c45d93c01a2c': {}, 'bf566098-223e-45d7-b3ed-ad9b76755cdd': {}, '1c3890b5-88c1-4e41-8aee-ff34db82bfc2': {}})"
            ]
          },
          "metadata": {},
          "execution_count": 22
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "cell_type": "code",
      "source": [
        "print(response)"
      ],
      "metadata": {
        "colab": {
          "base_uri": "https://localhost:8080/"
        },
        "id": "Pwn-1iztZzEK",
        "outputId": "1b41bb69-9514-4b5e-c9fd-e19e62cf27b1"
      },
      "execution_count": 23,
      "outputs": [
        {
          "output_type": "stream",
          "name": "stdout",
          "text": [
            "Instruction tuning is a technique that allows pre-trained language models to learn from input (natural language descriptions of the task) and response pairs. It involves training smaller models with pairs of user instructions, input, and corresponding outputs to improve their performance on various benchmarks. This technique has been applied to both language-only and multimodal tasks to enhance the zero-shot and few-shot capabilities of models.\n"
          ]
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "cell_type": "code",
      "source": [],
      "metadata": {
        "id": "2i6mTOPRZ1VA"
      },
      "execution_count": null,
      "outputs": []
    }
  ]
}